Click to Read.

The National Headache Foundation is offering a Certificate in Added Qualification (CAQ) exam in Headache Medicine from September 16 through October 1, 2019. In preparation for the CAQ, this supplement to Neurology Reviews walks readers through pertinent topics in migraine and headache that will be covered in the exam. 

Benefits of completing the CAQ exam include: 

• Validation of a level in expertise in headache medicine
• Possibility of more patient referrals 
• Enhanced credibility and satisfaction of providing your patients with the best possible care
• Recognition of skills when dealing with managed care and government agencies

Click here to read the supplement and learn more about CAQ exam enrollment.

Click to Read.

The National Headache Foundation is offering a Certificate in Added Qualification (CAQ) exam in Headache Medicine from September 16 through October 1, 2019. In preparation for the CAQ, this supplement to Neurology Reviews walks readers through pertinent topics in migraine and headache that will be covered in the exam. 

Benefits of completing the CAQ exam include: 

• Validation of a level in expertise in headache medicine
• Possibility of more patient referrals 
• Enhanced credibility and satisfaction of providing your patients with the best possible care
• Recognition of skills when dealing with managed care and government agencies

Click here to read the supplement and learn more about CAQ exam enrollment.

Click to Read.

The National Headache Foundation is offering a Certificate in Added Qualification (CAQ) exam in Headache Medicine from September 16 through October 1, 2019. In preparation for the CAQ, this supplement to Neurology Reviews walks readers through pertinent topics in migraine and headache that will be covered in the exam. 

Benefits of completing the CAQ exam include: 

• Validation of a level in expertise in headache medicine
• Possibility of more patient referrals 
• Enhanced credibility and satisfaction of providing your patients with the best possible care
• Recognition of skills when dealing with managed care and government agencies

Click here to read the supplement and learn more about CAQ exam enrollment.

Careful management of bipolar disorder during pregnancy is critical because for so many patients with this illness, the road to emotional well-being has been a long one, requiring a combination of careful pharmacologic and nonpharmacologic strategies.

KatarzynaBialasiewicz/thinkstockphotos

Half of referrals to our Center for Women’s Mental Health – where we evaluate and treat women before, during, and after pregnancy – are for women who have histories of bipolar disorder. My colleagues and I are asked at continuing medical education programs what we “always do” and “never do” with respect to the treatment of these patients.
 

What about discontinuation of mood stabilizers during pregnancy and risk of relapse?

We never abruptly stop mood stabilizers if a patient has an unplanned pregnancy – a common scenario, with 50% of pregnancies across the country being unplanned across sociodemographic lines – save for sodium valproate, which is a clearly a documented teratogen; it increases risk for organ malformation and behavioral difficulties in exposed offspring. In our center, we typically view the use of sodium valproate in reproductive age women as contraindicated.

One may then question the circumstances under which lithium might be used during pregnancy, because many clinicians are faced with patients who have been exquisite responders to lithium. Such a patient may present with a history of mania, but there are obvious concerns given the historical literature, and even some more recent reports, that describe an increased risk of teratogenicity with fetal exposure to lithium.

Maintenance pharmacotherapy for women with bipolar disorder during pregnancy is so important, not only to decrease the risk of relapse following discontinuation of mood stabilizers, but because recurrence of illness during pregnancy for these patients is a very strong predictor of risk for postpartum depression. Women with bipolar disorder already are at a fivefold increased risk for postpartum depression, so discussion of sustaining euthymia during pregnancy for bipolar women is particularly timely given the focus nationally on treatment and prevention of postpartum depression.
 

In patients with history of mania, what about stopping treatment with lithium and other effective treatments during pregnancy?

Historically, we sometimes divided patients with bipolar disorder into those with “more severe recurrent disease” compared with those with more distant, circumscribed disease. In patients with more remote histories of mood dysregulation, we tended to discontinue treatment with mood stabilizers such as lithium or even newer second-generation atypical antipsychotics to see if patients could at least get through earlier stages of pregnancy before going back on anti-manic treatment.

Our experience now over several decades has revealed that this can be a risky clinical move. What we see is that even in patients with histories of mania years in the past (i.e., a circumscribed episode of mania during college in a woman now 35 years old with intervening sustained well-being), discontinuation of treatment that got patients well can lead to recurrence. Hence, we should not confuse an exquisite response to treatment with long periods of well-being as suggesting that the patient has a less severe form of bipolar disorder and hence the capacity to sustain that well-being when treatment is removed.
 

What about increasing/decreasing lithium dose during pregnancy and around time of delivery?

Select patients may be sensitive to changes in plasma levels of lithium, but the literature suggests that the clinical utility of arbitrarily sustaining plasma levels at the upper limit of the accepted range may be of only modest advantage, if any. With this as a backdrop and even while knowing that increased plasma volume of pregnancy is associated with a fall in plasma level of most medications, we do not arbitrarily increase the dose of lithium across pregnancy merely to sustain a level in the absence of a change in clinical symptoms. Indeed, to my knowledge, currently available data supporting a clear correlation of decline in plasma levels and frank change in symptoms during pregnancy are very sparse, if existent.

Earlier work had suggested that lithium dosage should be reduced proximate to delivery, a period characterized by rapid shifts in plasma volume during the acute peripartum period. Because physicians in our center do not alter lithium dose across pregnancy, we never reduce the dose of lithium proximate to delivery because of a theoretical concern for increased risk of either neonatal toxicity or maternal lithium toxicity, which is essentially nonexistent in terms of systematic reports in the literature.

Obvious concerns about lithium during pregnancy have focused on increased risk of teratogenesis, with the earliest reports supporting an increased risk of Epstein’s anomaly (0.05%-0.1%). More recent reports suggest an increased risk of cardiovascular malformations, which according to some investigators may be dose dependent.

For those patients who are exquisitely responsive to lithium, we typically leave them on the medicine and avail ourselves of current fetal echocardiographic evaluation at 16 weeks to 18 weeks to document the integrity of the fetal cardiac anatomy. Although the risk for cardiac malformations associated with lithium exposure during the first trimester is still exceedingly small, it is still extremely reassuring to patients to know that they are safely on the other side of a teratogenic window.
 

What about lamotrigine levels across pregnancy?

The last decade has seen a dramatic decrease in the administration of lithium to women with bipolar disorder, and growing use of both lamotrigine and second-generation atypical antipsychotics (frequently in combination) as an alternative. The changes in plasma level of lamotrigine across pregnancy are being increasingly well documented based on rigorous studies (Obstet Gynecol Clin North Am. 2018 Sep;45[3]:403-17).

These are welcome data, but the correlation between plasma concentration of lamotrigine and clinical response is a poor one. To date, there are sparse data to suggest that maintaining plasma levels of lithium or lamotrigine at a certain level during pregnancy changes clinical outcome. Following lamotrigine plasma levels during pregnancy seems more like an academic exercise than a procedure associated with particular clinical value.

As in the case of lithium, we never change lamotrigine doses proximate to pregnancy because of the absence of reports of neonatal toxicity associated with using lamotrigine during the peripartum period. The rationale for removing or minimizing the use of an effective medicine proximate to delivery, a period of risk for bipolar women, is lacking.

In 2019, we clearly are seeing a growing use of atypical antipsychotics for the treatment of bipolar disorder during pregnancy frequently coadministered with medicines such as lamotrigine as opposed to lithium. The accumulated data to date on second-generation atypical antipsychotics are not definitive, but increasingly are reassuring in terms of absence of a clear signal for teratogenicity; hence, our comfort in using this class of medicines is only growing, which is important given the prevalence of use of these agents in reproductive-age women.

If there is a single critical guiding principle for the clinician when it comes to managing bipolar women during pregnancy and the postpartum period, it is sustaining euthymia. With the recent focus of the U.S. Preventive Services Task Force on prevention of postpartum depression, nothing is more helpful perhaps than keeping women with bipolar disorder well, both proximate to pregnancy and during an actual pregnancy. Keeping those patients well maximizes the likelihood that they will proceed across the peripartum and into the postpartum period with a level of emotional well-being that optimizes and maximizes positive long-term outcomes for both patients and families.
 

Dr. Cohen is the director of the Ammon-Pinizzotto Center for Women’s Mental Health at Massachusetts General Hospital in Boston, which provides information resources and conducts clinical care and research in reproductive mental health. He is also the Edmund and Carroll Carpenter professor of psychiatry at Harvard Medical School. He has been a consultant to manufacturers of psychiatric medications. Email Dr. Cohen at [email protected].

Careful management of bipolar disorder during pregnancy is critical because for so many patients with this illness, the road to emotional well-being has been a long one, requiring a combination of careful pharmacologic and nonpharmacologic strategies.

KatarzynaBialasiewicz/thinkstockphotos

Half of referrals to our Center for Women’s Mental Health – where we evaluate and treat women before, during, and after pregnancy – are for women who have histories of bipolar disorder. My colleagues and I are asked at continuing medical education programs what we “always do” and “never do” with respect to the treatment of these patients.
 

What about discontinuation of mood stabilizers during pregnancy and risk of relapse?

We never abruptly stop mood stabilizers if a patient has an unplanned pregnancy – a common scenario, with 50% of pregnancies across the country being unplanned across sociodemographic lines – save for sodium valproate, which is a clearly a documented teratogen; it increases risk for organ malformation and behavioral difficulties in exposed offspring. In our center, we typically view the use of sodium valproate in reproductive age women as contraindicated.

One may then question the circumstances under which lithium might be used during pregnancy, because many clinicians are faced with patients who have been exquisite responders to lithium. Such a patient may present with a history of mania, but there are obvious concerns given the historical literature, and even some more recent reports, that describe an increased risk of teratogenicity with fetal exposure to lithium.

Maintenance pharmacotherapy for women with bipolar disorder during pregnancy is so important, not only to decrease the risk of relapse following discontinuation of mood stabilizers, but because recurrence of illness during pregnancy for these patients is a very strong predictor of risk for postpartum depression. Women with bipolar disorder already are at a fivefold increased risk for postpartum depression, so discussion of sustaining euthymia during pregnancy for bipolar women is particularly timely given the focus nationally on treatment and prevention of postpartum depression.
 

In patients with history of mania, what about stopping treatment with lithium and other effective treatments during pregnancy?

Historically, we sometimes divided patients with bipolar disorder into those with “more severe recurrent disease” compared with those with more distant, circumscribed disease. In patients with more remote histories of mood dysregulation, we tended to discontinue treatment with mood stabilizers such as lithium or even newer second-generation atypical antipsychotics to see if patients could at least get through earlier stages of pregnancy before going back on anti-manic treatment.

Our experience now over several decades has revealed that this can be a risky clinical move. What we see is that even in patients with histories of mania years in the past (i.e., a circumscribed episode of mania during college in a woman now 35 years old with intervening sustained well-being), discontinuation of treatment that got patients well can lead to recurrence. Hence, we should not confuse an exquisite response to treatment with long periods of well-being as suggesting that the patient has a less severe form of bipolar disorder and hence the capacity to sustain that well-being when treatment is removed.
 

What about increasing/decreasing lithium dose during pregnancy and around time of delivery?

Select patients may be sensitive to changes in plasma levels of lithium, but the literature suggests that the clinical utility of arbitrarily sustaining plasma levels at the upper limit of the accepted range may be of only modest advantage, if any. With this as a backdrop and even while knowing that increased plasma volume of pregnancy is associated with a fall in plasma level of most medications, we do not arbitrarily increase the dose of lithium across pregnancy merely to sustain a level in the absence of a change in clinical symptoms. Indeed, to my knowledge, currently available data supporting a clear correlation of decline in plasma levels and frank change in symptoms during pregnancy are very sparse, if existent.

Earlier work had suggested that lithium dosage should be reduced proximate to delivery, a period characterized by rapid shifts in plasma volume during the acute peripartum period. Because physicians in our center do not alter lithium dose across pregnancy, we never reduce the dose of lithium proximate to delivery because of a theoretical concern for increased risk of either neonatal toxicity or maternal lithium toxicity, which is essentially nonexistent in terms of systematic reports in the literature.

Obvious concerns about lithium during pregnancy have focused on increased risk of teratogenesis, with the earliest reports supporting an increased risk of Epstein’s anomaly (0.05%-0.1%). More recent reports suggest an increased risk of cardiovascular malformations, which according to some investigators may be dose dependent.

For those patients who are exquisitely responsive to lithium, we typically leave them on the medicine and avail ourselves of current fetal echocardiographic evaluation at 16 weeks to 18 weeks to document the integrity of the fetal cardiac anatomy. Although the risk for cardiac malformations associated with lithium exposure during the first trimester is still exceedingly small, it is still extremely reassuring to patients to know that they are safely on the other side of a teratogenic window.
 

What about lamotrigine levels across pregnancy?

The last decade has seen a dramatic decrease in the administration of lithium to women with bipolar disorder, and growing use of both lamotrigine and second-generation atypical antipsychotics (frequently in combination) as an alternative. The changes in plasma level of lamotrigine across pregnancy are being increasingly well documented based on rigorous studies (Obstet Gynecol Clin North Am. 2018 Sep;45[3]:403-17).

These are welcome data, but the correlation between plasma concentration of lamotrigine and clinical response is a poor one. To date, there are sparse data to suggest that maintaining plasma levels of lithium or lamotrigine at a certain level during pregnancy changes clinical outcome. Following lamotrigine plasma levels during pregnancy seems more like an academic exercise than a procedure associated with particular clinical value.

As in the case of lithium, we never change lamotrigine doses proximate to pregnancy because of the absence of reports of neonatal toxicity associated with using lamotrigine during the peripartum period. The rationale for removing or minimizing the use of an effective medicine proximate to delivery, a period of risk for bipolar women, is lacking.

In 2019, we clearly are seeing a growing use of atypical antipsychotics for the treatment of bipolar disorder during pregnancy frequently coadministered with medicines such as lamotrigine as opposed to lithium. The accumulated data to date on second-generation atypical antipsychotics are not definitive, but increasingly are reassuring in terms of absence of a clear signal for teratogenicity; hence, our comfort in using this class of medicines is only growing, which is important given the prevalence of use of these agents in reproductive-age women.

If there is a single critical guiding principle for the clinician when it comes to managing bipolar women during pregnancy and the postpartum period, it is sustaining euthymia. With the recent focus of the U.S. Preventive Services Task Force on prevention of postpartum depression, nothing is more helpful perhaps than keeping women with bipolar disorder well, both proximate to pregnancy and during an actual pregnancy. Keeping those patients well maximizes the likelihood that they will proceed across the peripartum and into the postpartum period with a level of emotional well-being that optimizes and maximizes positive long-term outcomes for both patients and families.
 

Dr. Cohen is the director of the Ammon-Pinizzotto Center for Women’s Mental Health at Massachusetts General Hospital in Boston, which provides information resources and conducts clinical care and research in reproductive mental health. He is also the Edmund and Carroll Carpenter professor of psychiatry at Harvard Medical School. He has been a consultant to manufacturers of psychiatric medications. Email Dr. Cohen at [email protected].

Careful management of bipolar disorder during pregnancy is critical because for so many patients with this illness, the road to emotional well-being has been a long one, requiring a combination of careful pharmacologic and nonpharmacologic strategies.

KatarzynaBialasiewicz/thinkstockphotos

Half of referrals to our Center for Women’s Mental Health – where we evaluate and treat women before, during, and after pregnancy – are for women who have histories of bipolar disorder. My colleagues and I are asked at continuing medical education programs what we “always do” and “never do” with respect to the treatment of these patients.
 

What about discontinuation of mood stabilizers during pregnancy and risk of relapse?

We never abruptly stop mood stabilizers if a patient has an unplanned pregnancy – a common scenario, with 50% of pregnancies across the country being unplanned across sociodemographic lines – save for sodium valproate, which is a clearly a documented teratogen; it increases risk for organ malformation and behavioral difficulties in exposed offspring. In our center, we typically view the use of sodium valproate in reproductive age women as contraindicated.

One may then question the circumstances under which lithium might be used during pregnancy, because many clinicians are faced with patients who have been exquisite responders to lithium. Such a patient may present with a history of mania, but there are obvious concerns given the historical literature, and even some more recent reports, that describe an increased risk of teratogenicity with fetal exposure to lithium.

Maintenance pharmacotherapy for women with bipolar disorder during pregnancy is so important, not only to decrease the risk of relapse following discontinuation of mood stabilizers, but because recurrence of illness during pregnancy for these patients is a very strong predictor of risk for postpartum depression. Women with bipolar disorder already are at a fivefold increased risk for postpartum depression, so discussion of sustaining euthymia during pregnancy for bipolar women is particularly timely given the focus nationally on treatment and prevention of postpartum depression.
 

In patients with history of mania, what about stopping treatment with lithium and other effective treatments during pregnancy?

Historically, we sometimes divided patients with bipolar disorder into those with “more severe recurrent disease” compared with those with more distant, circumscribed disease. In patients with more remote histories of mood dysregulation, we tended to discontinue treatment with mood stabilizers such as lithium or even newer second-generation atypical antipsychotics to see if patients could at least get through earlier stages of pregnancy before going back on anti-manic treatment.

Our experience now over several decades has revealed that this can be a risky clinical move. What we see is that even in patients with histories of mania years in the past (i.e., a circumscribed episode of mania during college in a woman now 35 years old with intervening sustained well-being), discontinuation of treatment that got patients well can lead to recurrence. Hence, we should not confuse an exquisite response to treatment with long periods of well-being as suggesting that the patient has a less severe form of bipolar disorder and hence the capacity to sustain that well-being when treatment is removed.
 

What about increasing/decreasing lithium dose during pregnancy and around time of delivery?

Select patients may be sensitive to changes in plasma levels of lithium, but the literature suggests that the clinical utility of arbitrarily sustaining plasma levels at the upper limit of the accepted range may be of only modest advantage, if any. With this as a backdrop and even while knowing that increased plasma volume of pregnancy is associated with a fall in plasma level of most medications, we do not arbitrarily increase the dose of lithium across pregnancy merely to sustain a level in the absence of a change in clinical symptoms. Indeed, to my knowledge, currently available data supporting a clear correlation of decline in plasma levels and frank change in symptoms during pregnancy are very sparse, if existent.

Earlier work had suggested that lithium dosage should be reduced proximate to delivery, a period characterized by rapid shifts in plasma volume during the acute peripartum period. Because physicians in our center do not alter lithium dose across pregnancy, we never reduce the dose of lithium proximate to delivery because of a theoretical concern for increased risk of either neonatal toxicity or maternal lithium toxicity, which is essentially nonexistent in terms of systematic reports in the literature.

Obvious concerns about lithium during pregnancy have focused on increased risk of teratogenesis, with the earliest reports supporting an increased risk of Epstein’s anomaly (0.05%-0.1%). More recent reports suggest an increased risk of cardiovascular malformations, which according to some investigators may be dose dependent.

For those patients who are exquisitely responsive to lithium, we typically leave them on the medicine and avail ourselves of current fetal echocardiographic evaluation at 16 weeks to 18 weeks to document the integrity of the fetal cardiac anatomy. Although the risk for cardiac malformations associated with lithium exposure during the first trimester is still exceedingly small, it is still extremely reassuring to patients to know that they are safely on the other side of a teratogenic window.
 

What about lamotrigine levels across pregnancy?

The last decade has seen a dramatic decrease in the administration of lithium to women with bipolar disorder, and growing use of both lamotrigine and second-generation atypical antipsychotics (frequently in combination) as an alternative. The changes in plasma level of lamotrigine across pregnancy are being increasingly well documented based on rigorous studies (Obstet Gynecol Clin North Am. 2018 Sep;45[3]:403-17).

These are welcome data, but the correlation between plasma concentration of lamotrigine and clinical response is a poor one. To date, there are sparse data to suggest that maintaining plasma levels of lithium or lamotrigine at a certain level during pregnancy changes clinical outcome. Following lamotrigine plasma levels during pregnancy seems more like an academic exercise than a procedure associated with particular clinical value.

As in the case of lithium, we never change lamotrigine doses proximate to pregnancy because of the absence of reports of neonatal toxicity associated with using lamotrigine during the peripartum period. The rationale for removing or minimizing the use of an effective medicine proximate to delivery, a period of risk for bipolar women, is lacking.

In 2019, we clearly are seeing a growing use of atypical antipsychotics for the treatment of bipolar disorder during pregnancy frequently coadministered with medicines such as lamotrigine as opposed to lithium. The accumulated data to date on second-generation atypical antipsychotics are not definitive, but increasingly are reassuring in terms of absence of a clear signal for teratogenicity; hence, our comfort in using this class of medicines is only growing, which is important given the prevalence of use of these agents in reproductive-age women.

If there is a single critical guiding principle for the clinician when it comes to managing bipolar women during pregnancy and the postpartum period, it is sustaining euthymia. With the recent focus of the U.S. Preventive Services Task Force on prevention of postpartum depression, nothing is more helpful perhaps than keeping women with bipolar disorder well, both proximate to pregnancy and during an actual pregnancy. Keeping those patients well maximizes the likelihood that they will proceed across the peripartum and into the postpartum period with a level of emotional well-being that optimizes and maximizes positive long-term outcomes for both patients and families.
 

Dr. Cohen is the director of the Ammon-Pinizzotto Center for Women’s Mental Health at Massachusetts General Hospital in Boston, which provides information resources and conducts clinical care and research in reproductive mental health. He is also the Edmund and Carroll Carpenter professor of psychiatry at Harvard Medical School. He has been a consultant to manufacturers of psychiatric medications. Email Dr. Cohen at [email protected].

PHILADELPHIA - A once-daily dose of opicapone, a catechol-O-methyltransferase (COMT) inhibitor, added to levodopa was associated with improvements of up to 2 hours in on-time without dyskinesia in patients with Parkinson’s disease and motor fluctuations, according to an analysis of two pivotal studies and their respective 1-year extension studies.

The 2-hour improvement was considered clinically meaningful, although the average patient in the studies had about 6 hours of off-time, said investigator Peter LeWitt, MD, of Henry Ford Hospital in West Bloomfield, Mich., and the department of neurology at Wayne State University, Detroit. Dr. LeWitt and colleagues will present the data at the annual meeting of the American Academy of Neurology.

“While this is a substantial improvement, it is 2 hours improvement over a total of 6 hours of off-time, which is not perfect,” Dr. LeWitt said in an interview. “So how could we do better is the challenge for all of us who are doing research.”

Opicapone is under development in the United States; it is currently approved in the European Union as adjunctive therapy to preparations of levodopa/DOPA decarboxylase inhibitors for patients with Parkinson’s disease and end-of-dose motor fluctuations.

The ability of opicapone to prolong the clinical actions of levodopa has been evaluated in BIPARK-1 and BIPARK-2. These two international phase 3 studies evaluated the third-generation COMT inhibitor against placebo and, in the case of BIPARK-1, against the COMT inhibitor entacapone as an active control. Each study was 14-15 weeks in duration and included a 1-year open-label phase.

In BIPARK-1, on-time without troublesome dyskinesia was significantly increased for opicapone 50 mg versus placebo, with an absolute increase of 1.9 versus 0.9 hours, respectively, from baseline to week 14 or 15 (P = .002), investigators said. Similarly, BIPARK-2 data showed an increase in this endpoint, at 1.7 versus 0.9 hours for opicapone and placebo, respectively (P = .025).

The 50-mg dose of opicapone was received by 115 patients in BIPARK-1 and 147 patients in BIPARK-2, while placebo was received by 120 and 135 patients in those two studies, respectively.

In the long-term extension studies, the mean change in on-time without dyskinesia from baseline to the end of the open-label endpoint was 2.0 hours for all 494 opicapone-treated patients in BIPARK-1 and 1.8 hours for all 339 opicapone-treated patients in BIPARK-2.

Dyskinesia was reported as a treatment-emergent adverse effect for 17.4% of opicapone-treated patients and 6.2% of placebo-treated patients, according to results of a pooled safety analysis of BIPARK-1 and BIPARK-2. However, only 1.9% of opicapone-treated patients and 0.4% of placebo-treated patients had treatment-emergent dyskinesia leading to discontinuation, and the dyskinesia was considered serious in 0.3% of the opicapone group and 0.0% of the placebo group, investigators added.

Neurocrine Biosciences has announced plans to file a New Drug Application for opicapone for Parkinson’s disease in the United States. That filing is expected to take place in the second quarter of 2019, according to an April 29 press release.

Dr. LeWitt disclosed that he has served as an advisor to Neurocrine Biosciences. He also provided disclosures related to Acadia, Acorda, Adamas, BioElectron Technology, Biotie, Britannia, Intec, Jazz Pharmaceuticals, Lundbeck, the Michael J. Fox Foundation for Parkinson’s Research, Merz, NeuroDerm, the Parkinson Study Group, Pfizer, Prexton, Sage, Scion, Sunovion, SynAgile, and US WorldMeds.

SOURCE: LeWitt P et al. AAN 2019, Abstract S4.003.

PHILADELPHIA - A once-daily dose of opicapone, a catechol-O-methyltransferase (COMT) inhibitor, added to levodopa was associated with improvements of up to 2 hours in on-time without dyskinesia in patients with Parkinson’s disease and motor fluctuations, according to an analysis of two pivotal studies and their respective 1-year extension studies.

The 2-hour improvement was considered clinically meaningful, although the average patient in the studies had about 6 hours of off-time, said investigator Peter LeWitt, MD, of Henry Ford Hospital in West Bloomfield, Mich., and the department of neurology at Wayne State University, Detroit. Dr. LeWitt and colleagues will present the data at the annual meeting of the American Academy of Neurology.

“While this is a substantial improvement, it is 2 hours improvement over a total of 6 hours of off-time, which is not perfect,” Dr. LeWitt said in an interview. “So how could we do better is the challenge for all of us who are doing research.”

Opicapone is under development in the United States; it is currently approved in the European Union as adjunctive therapy to preparations of levodopa/DOPA decarboxylase inhibitors for patients with Parkinson’s disease and end-of-dose motor fluctuations.

The ability of opicapone to prolong the clinical actions of levodopa has been evaluated in BIPARK-1 and BIPARK-2. These two international phase 3 studies evaluated the third-generation COMT inhibitor against placebo and, in the case of BIPARK-1, against the COMT inhibitor entacapone as an active control. Each study was 14-15 weeks in duration and included a 1-year open-label phase.

In BIPARK-1, on-time without troublesome dyskinesia was significantly increased for opicapone 50 mg versus placebo, with an absolute increase of 1.9 versus 0.9 hours, respectively, from baseline to week 14 or 15 (P = .002), investigators said. Similarly, BIPARK-2 data showed an increase in this endpoint, at 1.7 versus 0.9 hours for opicapone and placebo, respectively (P = .025).

The 50-mg dose of opicapone was received by 115 patients in BIPARK-1 and 147 patients in BIPARK-2, while placebo was received by 120 and 135 patients in those two studies, respectively.

In the long-term extension studies, the mean change in on-time without dyskinesia from baseline to the end of the open-label endpoint was 2.0 hours for all 494 opicapone-treated patients in BIPARK-1 and 1.8 hours for all 339 opicapone-treated patients in BIPARK-2.

Dyskinesia was reported as a treatment-emergent adverse effect for 17.4% of opicapone-treated patients and 6.2% of placebo-treated patients, according to results of a pooled safety analysis of BIPARK-1 and BIPARK-2. However, only 1.9% of opicapone-treated patients and 0.4% of placebo-treated patients had treatment-emergent dyskinesia leading to discontinuation, and the dyskinesia was considered serious in 0.3% of the opicapone group and 0.0% of the placebo group, investigators added.

Neurocrine Biosciences has announced plans to file a New Drug Application for opicapone for Parkinson’s disease in the United States. That filing is expected to take place in the second quarter of 2019, according to an April 29 press release.

Dr. LeWitt disclosed that he has served as an advisor to Neurocrine Biosciences. He also provided disclosures related to Acadia, Acorda, Adamas, BioElectron Technology, Biotie, Britannia, Intec, Jazz Pharmaceuticals, Lundbeck, the Michael J. Fox Foundation for Parkinson’s Research, Merz, NeuroDerm, the Parkinson Study Group, Pfizer, Prexton, Sage, Scion, Sunovion, SynAgile, and US WorldMeds.

SOURCE: LeWitt P et al. AAN 2019, Abstract S4.003.

PHILADELPHIA - A once-daily dose of opicapone, a catechol-O-methyltransferase (COMT) inhibitor, added to levodopa was associated with improvements of up to 2 hours in on-time without dyskinesia in patients with Parkinson’s disease and motor fluctuations, according to an analysis of two pivotal studies and their respective 1-year extension studies.

The 2-hour improvement was considered clinically meaningful, although the average patient in the studies had about 6 hours of off-time, said investigator Peter LeWitt, MD, of Henry Ford Hospital in West Bloomfield, Mich., and the department of neurology at Wayne State University, Detroit. Dr. LeWitt and colleagues will present the data at the annual meeting of the American Academy of Neurology.

“While this is a substantial improvement, it is 2 hours improvement over a total of 6 hours of off-time, which is not perfect,” Dr. LeWitt said in an interview. “So how could we do better is the challenge for all of us who are doing research.”

Opicapone is under development in the United States; it is currently approved in the European Union as adjunctive therapy to preparations of levodopa/DOPA decarboxylase inhibitors for patients with Parkinson’s disease and end-of-dose motor fluctuations.

The ability of opicapone to prolong the clinical actions of levodopa has been evaluated in BIPARK-1 and BIPARK-2. These two international phase 3 studies evaluated the third-generation COMT inhibitor against placebo and, in the case of BIPARK-1, against the COMT inhibitor entacapone as an active control. Each study was 14-15 weeks in duration and included a 1-year open-label phase.

In BIPARK-1, on-time without troublesome dyskinesia was significantly increased for opicapone 50 mg versus placebo, with an absolute increase of 1.9 versus 0.9 hours, respectively, from baseline to week 14 or 15 (P = .002), investigators said. Similarly, BIPARK-2 data showed an increase in this endpoint, at 1.7 versus 0.9 hours for opicapone and placebo, respectively (P = .025).

The 50-mg dose of opicapone was received by 115 patients in BIPARK-1 and 147 patients in BIPARK-2, while placebo was received by 120 and 135 patients in those two studies, respectively.

In the long-term extension studies, the mean change in on-time without dyskinesia from baseline to the end of the open-label endpoint was 2.0 hours for all 494 opicapone-treated patients in BIPARK-1 and 1.8 hours for all 339 opicapone-treated patients in BIPARK-2.

Dyskinesia was reported as a treatment-emergent adverse effect for 17.4% of opicapone-treated patients and 6.2% of placebo-treated patients, according to results of a pooled safety analysis of BIPARK-1 and BIPARK-2. However, only 1.9% of opicapone-treated patients and 0.4% of placebo-treated patients had treatment-emergent dyskinesia leading to discontinuation, and the dyskinesia was considered serious in 0.3% of the opicapone group and 0.0% of the placebo group, investigators added.

Neurocrine Biosciences has announced plans to file a New Drug Application for opicapone for Parkinson’s disease in the United States. That filing is expected to take place in the second quarter of 2019, according to an April 29 press release.

Dr. LeWitt disclosed that he has served as an advisor to Neurocrine Biosciences. He also provided disclosures related to Acadia, Acorda, Adamas, BioElectron Technology, Biotie, Britannia, Intec, Jazz Pharmaceuticals, Lundbeck, the Michael J. Fox Foundation for Parkinson’s Research, Merz, NeuroDerm, the Parkinson Study Group, Pfizer, Prexton, Sage, Scion, Sunovion, SynAgile, and US WorldMeds.

SOURCE: LeWitt P et al. AAN 2019, Abstract S4.003.

BALTIMORE – Despite the greater portability and seeming convenience of electronic tablets or smartphones, providing low-income families with e-books did not increase parents’ frequency of reading to their children or the children’s language development, compared with giving them physical board books, according to preliminary findings.

globalmoments/iStock/Getty Images

James Guevara, MD, MPH, professor of pediatrics at the Children’s Hospital of Philadelphia, presented his findings at the annual meeting of Pediatric Academic Societies in a session focused on the changing nature of children’s digital media use as digital natives.

The session chair, Danielle C. Erkoboni, MD, of the University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, opened the session with a review of research to date regarding children’s frequency of digital use and relative benefits of independent and shared reading, both with traditional books and e-books.

Nearly all U.S. children (98%) live in homes with mobile devices, and about a third of U.S. children (35%) use those devices, according to a 2017 Common Sense Media Report. The same survey found that children aged under 2 years get an average 42 minutes a day of overall screen time, but children in low-income households get twice as much screen time as those in middle- and upper-income homes.

Research into e-books exists for preschoolers, showing that animated pictures and sounds directly matching an e-book’s story text can potentially promote language memory, but that too many interactive features or other bells and whistles can overwhelm children and contribute to poor vocabulary development and comprehension.

Researchers also have found that parent reading of e-books has greater benefits for children than children listening to an e-book’s audio narration. However, little to no research has looked into e-reading for infants and toddlers, a gap especially relevant for physicians who participate in the Reach Out and Read program.

Dr Guevara’s study enrolled 100 Medicaid-eligible children aged 5-7 months from three participating practices in a single geographic area. Only English- or Spanish-speaking parents who owned a smartphone or tablet participated.

At the children’s 6-month well visit, the clinicians gave parents information about the importance of early parent-child reading. Then parents received Dr. Seuss’s “Hop on Pop” as either an e-book download (n = 45) or a physical board book (n = 54). The parents similarly received “Barnyard Dance” at the 9-month visit and “Goodnight Moon” at the 12-month visit.

No significant differences between the two groups existed in terms of race/ethnicity, parent age, household income, education level, marital status or the total number of adults or children in the household. Maternal depression rates (based on the Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Scale), Adverse Childhood Experience scale scores, health literacy scores (Short Assessment of Health Literacy) and scores on the StimQ home cognitive environment assessment also were similar at baseline between the two groups.

The children were assessed with the StimQ Infant measure at 7-8 months and 10-11 months, and then with the StimQ Toddler and Bayley Scale of Infant and Toddler Development (BSID-III) at 13-15 months. At the final check-up, 37 parents remained in the e-book group and 43 parents remained in the board book group.

A similar proportion of parents in both groups reported reading to their children, and parents in both groups said they read an average of 5 days a week to their child.

However, parents who received the e-books had read an average 18 books at the final follow-up, compared with an average of 31 books among parents who received the board books (P = .039).

No significant differences in children’s StimQ scores or any of the BSID-III scores (cognitive, language, motor) existed between those who received e-books versus those who received board books.

The study results showed the feasibility of promoting literacy by providing e-books to parents of older infants, but doing so did not appear to confer any advantage over providing families with traditional, physical board books. Further, language development among children in both groups remained below average, albeit not statistically different from one another.

“Pediatric clinicians should exercise caution in recommending e-books to parents of young children.” Dr Guevara said. “Additional strategies beyond clinic-based literacy promotion are needed to enhance language development among poor children.”

The research was funded by the Vanguard Strong Start for Kids Program. Dr. Guevara reported no disclosures.

BALTIMORE – Despite the greater portability and seeming convenience of electronic tablets or smartphones, providing low-income families with e-books did not increase parents’ frequency of reading to their children or the children’s language development, compared with giving them physical board books, according to preliminary findings.

globalmoments/iStock/Getty Images

James Guevara, MD, MPH, professor of pediatrics at the Children’s Hospital of Philadelphia, presented his findings at the annual meeting of Pediatric Academic Societies in a session focused on the changing nature of children’s digital media use as digital natives.

The session chair, Danielle C. Erkoboni, MD, of the University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, opened the session with a review of research to date regarding children’s frequency of digital use and relative benefits of independent and shared reading, both with traditional books and e-books.

Nearly all U.S. children (98%) live in homes with mobile devices, and about a third of U.S. children (35%) use those devices, according to a 2017 Common Sense Media Report. The same survey found that children aged under 2 years get an average 42 minutes a day of overall screen time, but children in low-income households get twice as much screen time as those in middle- and upper-income homes.

Research into e-books exists for preschoolers, showing that animated pictures and sounds directly matching an e-book’s story text can potentially promote language memory, but that too many interactive features or other bells and whistles can overwhelm children and contribute to poor vocabulary development and comprehension.

Researchers also have found that parent reading of e-books has greater benefits for children than children listening to an e-book’s audio narration. However, little to no research has looked into e-reading for infants and toddlers, a gap especially relevant for physicians who participate in the Reach Out and Read program.

Dr Guevara’s study enrolled 100 Medicaid-eligible children aged 5-7 months from three participating practices in a single geographic area. Only English- or Spanish-speaking parents who owned a smartphone or tablet participated.

At the children’s 6-month well visit, the clinicians gave parents information about the importance of early parent-child reading. Then parents received Dr. Seuss’s “Hop on Pop” as either an e-book download (n = 45) or a physical board book (n = 54). The parents similarly received “Barnyard Dance” at the 9-month visit and “Goodnight Moon” at the 12-month visit.

No significant differences between the two groups existed in terms of race/ethnicity, parent age, household income, education level, marital status or the total number of adults or children in the household. Maternal depression rates (based on the Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Scale), Adverse Childhood Experience scale scores, health literacy scores (Short Assessment of Health Literacy) and scores on the StimQ home cognitive environment assessment also were similar at baseline between the two groups.

The children were assessed with the StimQ Infant measure at 7-8 months and 10-11 months, and then with the StimQ Toddler and Bayley Scale of Infant and Toddler Development (BSID-III) at 13-15 months. At the final check-up, 37 parents remained in the e-book group and 43 parents remained in the board book group.

A similar proportion of parents in both groups reported reading to their children, and parents in both groups said they read an average of 5 days a week to their child.

However, parents who received the e-books had read an average 18 books at the final follow-up, compared with an average of 31 books among parents who received the board books (P = .039).

No significant differences in children’s StimQ scores or any of the BSID-III scores (cognitive, language, motor) existed between those who received e-books versus those who received board books.

The study results showed the feasibility of promoting literacy by providing e-books to parents of older infants, but doing so did not appear to confer any advantage over providing families with traditional, physical board books. Further, language development among children in both groups remained below average, albeit not statistically different from one another.

“Pediatric clinicians should exercise caution in recommending e-books to parents of young children.” Dr Guevara said. “Additional strategies beyond clinic-based literacy promotion are needed to enhance language development among poor children.”

The research was funded by the Vanguard Strong Start for Kids Program. Dr. Guevara reported no disclosures.

BALTIMORE – Despite the greater portability and seeming convenience of electronic tablets or smartphones, providing low-income families with e-books did not increase parents’ frequency of reading to their children or the children’s language development, compared with giving them physical board books, according to preliminary findings.

globalmoments/iStock/Getty Images

James Guevara, MD, MPH, professor of pediatrics at the Children’s Hospital of Philadelphia, presented his findings at the annual meeting of Pediatric Academic Societies in a session focused on the changing nature of children’s digital media use as digital natives.

The session chair, Danielle C. Erkoboni, MD, of the University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, opened the session with a review of research to date regarding children’s frequency of digital use and relative benefits of independent and shared reading, both with traditional books and e-books.

Nearly all U.S. children (98%) live in homes with mobile devices, and about a third of U.S. children (35%) use those devices, according to a 2017 Common Sense Media Report. The same survey found that children aged under 2 years get an average 42 minutes a day of overall screen time, but children in low-income households get twice as much screen time as those in middle- and upper-income homes.

Research into e-books exists for preschoolers, showing that animated pictures and sounds directly matching an e-book’s story text can potentially promote language memory, but that too many interactive features or other bells and whistles can overwhelm children and contribute to poor vocabulary development and comprehension.

Researchers also have found that parent reading of e-books has greater benefits for children than children listening to an e-book’s audio narration. However, little to no research has looked into e-reading for infants and toddlers, a gap especially relevant for physicians who participate in the Reach Out and Read program.

Dr Guevara’s study enrolled 100 Medicaid-eligible children aged 5-7 months from three participating practices in a single geographic area. Only English- or Spanish-speaking parents who owned a smartphone or tablet participated.

At the children’s 6-month well visit, the clinicians gave parents information about the importance of early parent-child reading. Then parents received Dr. Seuss’s “Hop on Pop” as either an e-book download (n = 45) or a physical board book (n = 54). The parents similarly received “Barnyard Dance” at the 9-month visit and “Goodnight Moon” at the 12-month visit.

No significant differences between the two groups existed in terms of race/ethnicity, parent age, household income, education level, marital status or the total number of adults or children in the household. Maternal depression rates (based on the Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Scale), Adverse Childhood Experience scale scores, health literacy scores (Short Assessment of Health Literacy) and scores on the StimQ home cognitive environment assessment also were similar at baseline between the two groups.

The children were assessed with the StimQ Infant measure at 7-8 months and 10-11 months, and then with the StimQ Toddler and Bayley Scale of Infant and Toddler Development (BSID-III) at 13-15 months. At the final check-up, 37 parents remained in the e-book group and 43 parents remained in the board book group.

A similar proportion of parents in both groups reported reading to their children, and parents in both groups said they read an average of 5 days a week to their child.

However, parents who received the e-books had read an average 18 books at the final follow-up, compared with an average of 31 books among parents who received the board books (P = .039).

No significant differences in children’s StimQ scores or any of the BSID-III scores (cognitive, language, motor) existed between those who received e-books versus those who received board books.

The study results showed the feasibility of promoting literacy by providing e-books to parents of older infants, but doing so did not appear to confer any advantage over providing families with traditional, physical board books. Further, language development among children in both groups remained below average, albeit not statistically different from one another.

“Pediatric clinicians should exercise caution in recommending e-books to parents of young children.” Dr Guevara said. “Additional strategies beyond clinic-based literacy promotion are needed to enhance language development among poor children.”

The research was funded by the Vanguard Strong Start for Kids Program. Dr. Guevara reported no disclosures.

BALTIMORE – The more parents demonstrate addictive behaviors with smartphones, the more difficulties they have in regulating their young children’s use of the devices, according to a new study. The findings suggest that excessive smartphone use also is associated with the stress of parenting.

mheim3011/iStock / Getty Images

“We really need to start raising awareness among parents that their behaviors possibly have an association with their children’s [behaviors] as well,” lead author Korena S. Klimczak of Old Dominion University, Norfolk, Va., said in an interview at the annual meeting of the Pediatric Academic Societies.

“I think a lot of parents are not really considering how their smartphone use might be possibly influencing their children,” Ms. Klimczak said. “I think that’s an area pediatricians can start to target as they see parents using the smartphone in the room or passing the phone off to their child in the room.”

Previous research already has linked excessive smartphone use with problematic parenting. Parents distracted by their phones tend to communicate less with their children in the moment, and parents with smartphone addiction symptoms are “less likely to actively mediate their child’s smartphone use,” Ms. Klimczak and her associates noted.

For this study, the researchers recruited 355 parents of children aged 6 months to 5 years from an urban Southeastern academic pediatric hospital clinic. Most of the participating parents were black (72%) and most were mothers (79%).

During a well-child visit, the parents filled out the Smartphone Addiction Scale (SAS), the Parental Stress Scale (PSS) and a 16-item survey on their demographics and their children’s smartphone use. The SAS provided a binary variable (yes/no) on whether parents were addicted to their phones.

Starting when the children were between 12 and 17 months old, parents reported their children’s increasing ability to open or turn on a smartphone. Forty percent of parents reported that their children could turn on phones at this age, and the proportion steadily rose to 79% for children aged 4-5 years (P less than .001).

About one-third of children could start applications on their parents’ phones at age 12-17 months, but more than half were watching videos on their parents’ phones at that age. By the time children were aged 18-24 months, 73% of parents reported that the toddlers could open applications on the phones.

Among parents with a smartphone addiction as defined by the SAS, 59% reported finding it difficult to take their phones away from their children, compared with about half as many parents (26%) without a smartphone addiction (P = .001).

That finding appeared to carry over into their children spending more time on their smartphones as well. Among parents with a smartphone addiction, 22% reported that their children spent more than 2 hours a day on their smartphones, compared with 4% of parents without a smartphone addiction (P = .012). Past research suggests that spending that much time on mobile phones can be an obstacle to emotional and cognitive development, Ms. Klimczak said.

The proportion of children who spent time on their parents’ phones for 5-30 minutes, 30-60 minutes, or 1-2 hours was otherwise relatively similar between parents with and without smartphone addiction.

“There were some possible behavioral issues involved with smartphone addiction in parents as well,” she said, given how much more difficulty these parents had with taking phones away from their children. These parents “were more likely to use corporal punishment as well,” she added.

When faced with a hypothetical situation in which the child broke the parent’s phone, parents with high levels of parental stress were “significantly more likely to discipline their child through either spanking or yelling” the researchers reported, and a positive correlation between parental stress and smartphone addiction existed as well (r = .352, P less than .001).

Ms. Klimczak acknowledged that pediatricians already have a lot of ground to cover in each well-child visit, and monitoring parents’ cell phone use does not necessarily need to be a formal screening measure.

Tara Haelle/MDedge News

“I think as you see the behavior, you can point it out and maybe gently bring it up,” she said. Pediatricians who notice parents focused on their phones or passing their phones to their children can ask parents at that moment: “I see you using your phone ...” or “I see you’re letting your child use the phone. How often do you let them use the phone [each] day?” Ms. Klimczak said. Gently asking those questions may at least get the parents to think about the issues.

She also recommended incorporating awareness of smartphone addiction and child use of phones into parent education programs in addition to information about safe sleep, breastfeeding, and similar topics. “With how prevalent smartphone use is today, I think it’s at least something to bring up and make them conscious of.”

Ms. Klimczak had no financial disclosures.

BALTIMORE – The more parents demonstrate addictive behaviors with smartphones, the more difficulties they have in regulating their young children’s use of the devices, according to a new study. The findings suggest that excessive smartphone use also is associated with the stress of parenting.

mheim3011/iStock / Getty Images

“We really need to start raising awareness among parents that their behaviors possibly have an association with their children’s [behaviors] as well,” lead author Korena S. Klimczak of Old Dominion University, Norfolk, Va., said in an interview at the annual meeting of the Pediatric Academic Societies.

“I think a lot of parents are not really considering how their smartphone use might be possibly influencing their children,” Ms. Klimczak said. “I think that’s an area pediatricians can start to target as they see parents using the smartphone in the room or passing the phone off to their child in the room.”

Previous research already has linked excessive smartphone use with problematic parenting. Parents distracted by their phones tend to communicate less with their children in the moment, and parents with smartphone addiction symptoms are “less likely to actively mediate their child’s smartphone use,” Ms. Klimczak and her associates noted.

For this study, the researchers recruited 355 parents of children aged 6 months to 5 years from an urban Southeastern academic pediatric hospital clinic. Most of the participating parents were black (72%) and most were mothers (79%).

During a well-child visit, the parents filled out the Smartphone Addiction Scale (SAS), the Parental Stress Scale (PSS) and a 16-item survey on their demographics and their children’s smartphone use. The SAS provided a binary variable (yes/no) on whether parents were addicted to their phones.

Starting when the children were between 12 and 17 months old, parents reported their children’s increasing ability to open or turn on a smartphone. Forty percent of parents reported that their children could turn on phones at this age, and the proportion steadily rose to 79% for children aged 4-5 years (P less than .001).

About one-third of children could start applications on their parents’ phones at age 12-17 months, but more than half were watching videos on their parents’ phones at that age. By the time children were aged 18-24 months, 73% of parents reported that the toddlers could open applications on the phones.

Among parents with a smartphone addiction as defined by the SAS, 59% reported finding it difficult to take their phones away from their children, compared with about half as many parents (26%) without a smartphone addiction (P = .001).

That finding appeared to carry over into their children spending more time on their smartphones as well. Among parents with a smartphone addiction, 22% reported that their children spent more than 2 hours a day on their smartphones, compared with 4% of parents without a smartphone addiction (P = .012). Past research suggests that spending that much time on mobile phones can be an obstacle to emotional and cognitive development, Ms. Klimczak said.

The proportion of children who spent time on their parents’ phones for 5-30 minutes, 30-60 minutes, or 1-2 hours was otherwise relatively similar between parents with and without smartphone addiction.

“There were some possible behavioral issues involved with smartphone addiction in parents as well,” she said, given how much more difficulty these parents had with taking phones away from their children. These parents “were more likely to use corporal punishment as well,” she added.

When faced with a hypothetical situation in which the child broke the parent’s phone, parents with high levels of parental stress were “significantly more likely to discipline their child through either spanking or yelling” the researchers reported, and a positive correlation between parental stress and smartphone addiction existed as well (r = .352, P less than .001).

Ms. Klimczak acknowledged that pediatricians already have a lot of ground to cover in each well-child visit, and monitoring parents’ cell phone use does not necessarily need to be a formal screening measure.

Tara Haelle/MDedge News

“I think as you see the behavior, you can point it out and maybe gently bring it up,” she said. Pediatricians who notice parents focused on their phones or passing their phones to their children can ask parents at that moment: “I see you using your phone ...” or “I see you’re letting your child use the phone. How often do you let them use the phone [each] day?” Ms. Klimczak said. Gently asking those questions may at least get the parents to think about the issues.

She also recommended incorporating awareness of smartphone addiction and child use of phones into parent education programs in addition to information about safe sleep, breastfeeding, and similar topics. “With how prevalent smartphone use is today, I think it’s at least something to bring up and make them conscious of.”

Ms. Klimczak had no financial disclosures.

BALTIMORE – The more parents demonstrate addictive behaviors with smartphones, the more difficulties they have in regulating their young children’s use of the devices, according to a new study. The findings suggest that excessive smartphone use also is associated with the stress of parenting.

mheim3011/iStock / Getty Images

“We really need to start raising awareness among parents that their behaviors possibly have an association with their children’s [behaviors] as well,” lead author Korena S. Klimczak of Old Dominion University, Norfolk, Va., said in an interview at the annual meeting of the Pediatric Academic Societies.

“I think a lot of parents are not really considering how their smartphone use might be possibly influencing their children,” Ms. Klimczak said. “I think that’s an area pediatricians can start to target as they see parents using the smartphone in the room or passing the phone off to their child in the room.”

Previous research already has linked excessive smartphone use with problematic parenting. Parents distracted by their phones tend to communicate less with their children in the moment, and parents with smartphone addiction symptoms are “less likely to actively mediate their child’s smartphone use,” Ms. Klimczak and her associates noted.

For this study, the researchers recruited 355 parents of children aged 6 months to 5 years from an urban Southeastern academic pediatric hospital clinic. Most of the participating parents were black (72%) and most were mothers (79%).

During a well-child visit, the parents filled out the Smartphone Addiction Scale (SAS), the Parental Stress Scale (PSS) and a 16-item survey on their demographics and their children’s smartphone use. The SAS provided a binary variable (yes/no) on whether parents were addicted to their phones.

Starting when the children were between 12 and 17 months old, parents reported their children’s increasing ability to open or turn on a smartphone. Forty percent of parents reported that their children could turn on phones at this age, and the proportion steadily rose to 79% for children aged 4-5 years (P less than .001).

About one-third of children could start applications on their parents’ phones at age 12-17 months, but more than half were watching videos on their parents’ phones at that age. By the time children were aged 18-24 months, 73% of parents reported that the toddlers could open applications on the phones.

Among parents with a smartphone addiction as defined by the SAS, 59% reported finding it difficult to take their phones away from their children, compared with about half as many parents (26%) without a smartphone addiction (P = .001).

That finding appeared to carry over into their children spending more time on their smartphones as well. Among parents with a smartphone addiction, 22% reported that their children spent more than 2 hours a day on their smartphones, compared with 4% of parents without a smartphone addiction (P = .012). Past research suggests that spending that much time on mobile phones can be an obstacle to emotional and cognitive development, Ms. Klimczak said.

The proportion of children who spent time on their parents’ phones for 5-30 minutes, 30-60 minutes, or 1-2 hours was otherwise relatively similar between parents with and without smartphone addiction.

“There were some possible behavioral issues involved with smartphone addiction in parents as well,” she said, given how much more difficulty these parents had with taking phones away from their children. These parents “were more likely to use corporal punishment as well,” she added.

When faced with a hypothetical situation in which the child broke the parent’s phone, parents with high levels of parental stress were “significantly more likely to discipline their child through either spanking or yelling” the researchers reported, and a positive correlation between parental stress and smartphone addiction existed as well (r = .352, P less than .001).

Ms. Klimczak acknowledged that pediatricians already have a lot of ground to cover in each well-child visit, and monitoring parents’ cell phone use does not necessarily need to be a formal screening measure.

Tara Haelle/MDedge News

“I think as you see the behavior, you can point it out and maybe gently bring it up,” she said. Pediatricians who notice parents focused on their phones or passing their phones to their children can ask parents at that moment: “I see you using your phone ...” or “I see you’re letting your child use the phone. How often do you let them use the phone [each] day?” Ms. Klimczak said. Gently asking those questions may at least get the parents to think about the issues.

She also recommended incorporating awareness of smartphone addiction and child use of phones into parent education programs in addition to information about safe sleep, breastfeeding, and similar topics. “With how prevalent smartphone use is today, I think it’s at least something to bring up and make them conscious of.”

Ms. Klimczak had no financial disclosures.

Long-term use of alendronate and zoledronic acid for more than 3 years reduces the rate of vertebral fracture in treatment-naive postmenopausal women with notable, yet rare, adverse events, but too little evidence exists to make determinations on the long-term benefit/risk profile of other bisphosphonates or other osteoporosis drugs besides raloxifene and oral hormone therapy, according to a report coming out of a recent National Institutes of Health workshop.

This situation leaves a large research gap that authors of an accompanying position paper hope to bridge with recommendations for studying therapy discontinuation and drug holidays during long-term osteoporosis drug treatment.

The NIH’s Pathways to Prevention (P2P) Workshop: Appropriate Use of Drug Therapies for Osteoporotic Fracture Prevention outlined the findings of the systematic review of long-term osteoporosis drug treatment (ODT), which was commissioned by the NIH Office of Disease Prevention. The systematic review and a position paper summarizing the workshop were published April 23 in Annals of Internal Medicine.

“Clinicians and patients need increased information on benefits and risks to inform shared decision making about the use of these treatments, taking into account patients’ values and preferences,” Albert Siu, MD, of the Brookdale Department of Geriatrics and Palliative Medicine at the Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai in New York, and his colleagues wrote in the position paper (Ann Intern Med. 2019 Apr 23. doi: 10.7326/M19-0961). “The research ... is urgently needed to advance prevention of osteoporosis-related mortality and morbidity.”

In the systematic review, by a group of researchers separate from the workshop, 48 studies were identified (35 trials, 13 observational studies) that compared men and postmenopausal women 50 years or older who used treatments such as alendronate, raloxifene, zoledronic acid, and hormone therapy. The researchers found that use of alendronate for 4 years reduced the rate of clinical fractures (hazard ratio, 0.64; 95% confidence interval, 0.50-0.82) and radiographic vertebral fractures (HR, 0.50; 95% CI, 0.31-0.82) in women with osteoporosis. Raloxifene use for 4 years reduced the rate of clinical vertebral fractures (relative risk, 0.58; 95% CI, 0.43-0.79) and radiographic vertebral fractures (RR, 0.64; 95% CI, 0.53-0.76) but not nonvertebral fractures. Zoledronic acid use for 6 years was associated with a lower rate of nonvertebral fractures (HR, 0.66; 95% CI, 0.51-0.85) and clinical vertebral fractures (HR, 0.41; 95% CI, 0.22-0.75) in women with both osteoporosis and osteopenia. Estrogen-progestin use for 5.6 years and unopposed estrogen for 7 years was associated with clinical fracture reduction in women with unspecified osteoporosis and osteopenia when compared with placebo (Ann Intern Med. 2019 April 23. doi: 10.7326/M19-0533).

Controlled observational studies collectively show that long-term use of alendronate and of bisphosphonates as a class increased risk for radiologically confirmed atypical femoral fracture but by a small absolute amount, with less evidence for risks of subtrochanteric or femoral shaft fractures without radiologically confirmed atypical femoral fracture features and osteonecrosis of the jaw. However, there were no eligible observational studies with long-term use of zoledronic acid that evaluated risk for these adverse events.

Long-term raloxifene therapy was associated with a threefold increased risk for deep venous thrombosis and a three- to fourfold increased risk for pulmonary embolism, although not all results were statistically significant, the researchers said. In two long-term trials, both estrogen and estrogen-progestin compared with placebo increased risk for cardiovascular disease and cognitive impairment. Estrogen-progestin also increased risk for invasive breast cancer.

The researchers also studied abaloparatide, denosumab, ibandronate, risedronate, and teriparatide, but noted there were insufficient data to show the long-term effects of their use on fractures and other harms.

Dr. Siu and coauthors on the position paper made the following recommendations with regard to future research on long-term ODT:

• Using “innovative designs and approaches” for new research such as modeling studies, clinical trials, and observational studies of existing and potential treatments.

• Evaluating new agents or multicomponent interventions, such as fracture liaison services and oral care, that do not carry the downsides of antiresorptive therapies.

• Researching and preventing atypical femoral fracture and osteonecrosis of the jaw, particularly when associated with long-term denosumab or bisphosphonate use.

• Determining which patients are indicated for drug holidays, sequential therapies, and strategies for avoiding serious adverse events.

• Studying barriers to ODT.

“When we have information on these outcomes, such as how medication use after a fragility fracture is linked to future fractures or survival rates, we need to understand how to convey that information to patients so they can make more informed decisions about their care,” noted Dr. Siu and colleagues.

In an editorial related to both the position paper and the systematic review, Carolyn J. Crandall, MD, of the University of California, Los Angeles, agreed that clinical trial data do not answer questions about shared decision making for women with multiple comorbid conditions, the long-term effects of ODT with regard to rare fracture risk, and which patients are well-suited for drug holidays.

“The National Institutes of Health should support research to answer these high-impact clinical questions, in addition to encouraging approaches for clinicians to determine which individual patients are at greater risk for harms related to long-term bisphosphonate use,” she said. “The need to rigorously study patient preferences in the context of ODT is pressing because of the complex dosing instructions of oral bisphosphonates and the dramatic underutilization of ODT among persons who have already had a vertebral or hip fracture.”

The systematic review was funded by the National Institutes of Health and the Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality. The authors of the position paper and Dr. Crandall reported no conflicts of interest.

SOURCE: Siu A et al. Ann Intern Med. 2019 April 23. doi: 10.7326/M19-0961.

Long-term use of alendronate and zoledronic acid for more than 3 years reduces the rate of vertebral fracture in treatment-naive postmenopausal women with notable, yet rare, adverse events, but too little evidence exists to make determinations on the long-term benefit/risk profile of other bisphosphonates or other osteoporosis drugs besides raloxifene and oral hormone therapy, according to a report coming out of a recent National Institutes of Health workshop.

This situation leaves a large research gap that authors of an accompanying position paper hope to bridge with recommendations for studying therapy discontinuation and drug holidays during long-term osteoporosis drug treatment.

The NIH’s Pathways to Prevention (P2P) Workshop: Appropriate Use of Drug Therapies for Osteoporotic Fracture Prevention outlined the findings of the systematic review of long-term osteoporosis drug treatment (ODT), which was commissioned by the NIH Office of Disease Prevention. The systematic review and a position paper summarizing the workshop were published April 23 in Annals of Internal Medicine.

“Clinicians and patients need increased information on benefits and risks to inform shared decision making about the use of these treatments, taking into account patients’ values and preferences,” Albert Siu, MD, of the Brookdale Department of Geriatrics and Palliative Medicine at the Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai in New York, and his colleagues wrote in the position paper (Ann Intern Med. 2019 Apr 23. doi: 10.7326/M19-0961). “The research ... is urgently needed to advance prevention of osteoporosis-related mortality and morbidity.”

In the systematic review, by a group of researchers separate from the workshop, 48 studies were identified (35 trials, 13 observational studies) that compared men and postmenopausal women 50 years or older who used treatments such as alendronate, raloxifene, zoledronic acid, and hormone therapy. The researchers found that use of alendronate for 4 years reduced the rate of clinical fractures (hazard ratio, 0.64; 95% confidence interval, 0.50-0.82) and radiographic vertebral fractures (HR, 0.50; 95% CI, 0.31-0.82) in women with osteoporosis. Raloxifene use for 4 years reduced the rate of clinical vertebral fractures (relative risk, 0.58; 95% CI, 0.43-0.79) and radiographic vertebral fractures (RR, 0.64; 95% CI, 0.53-0.76) but not nonvertebral fractures. Zoledronic acid use for 6 years was associated with a lower rate of nonvertebral fractures (HR, 0.66; 95% CI, 0.51-0.85) and clinical vertebral fractures (HR, 0.41; 95% CI, 0.22-0.75) in women with both osteoporosis and osteopenia. Estrogen-progestin use for 5.6 years and unopposed estrogen for 7 years was associated with clinical fracture reduction in women with unspecified osteoporosis and osteopenia when compared with placebo (Ann Intern Med. 2019 April 23. doi: 10.7326/M19-0533).

Controlled observational studies collectively show that long-term use of alendronate and of bisphosphonates as a class increased risk for radiologically confirmed atypical femoral fracture but by a small absolute amount, with less evidence for risks of subtrochanteric or femoral shaft fractures without radiologically confirmed atypical femoral fracture features and osteonecrosis of the jaw. However, there were no eligible observational studies with long-term use of zoledronic acid that evaluated risk for these adverse events.

Long-term raloxifene therapy was associated with a threefold increased risk for deep venous thrombosis and a three- to fourfold increased risk for pulmonary embolism, although not all results were statistically significant, the researchers said. In two long-term trials, both estrogen and estrogen-progestin compared with placebo increased risk for cardiovascular disease and cognitive impairment. Estrogen-progestin also increased risk for invasive breast cancer.

The researchers also studied abaloparatide, denosumab, ibandronate, risedronate, and teriparatide, but noted there were insufficient data to show the long-term effects of their use on fractures and other harms.

Dr. Siu and coauthors on the position paper made the following recommendations with regard to future research on long-term ODT:

• Using “innovative designs and approaches” for new research such as modeling studies, clinical trials, and observational studies of existing and potential treatments.

• Evaluating new agents or multicomponent interventions, such as fracture liaison services and oral care, that do not carry the downsides of antiresorptive therapies.

• Researching and preventing atypical femoral fracture and osteonecrosis of the jaw, particularly when associated with long-term denosumab or bisphosphonate use.

• Determining which patients are indicated for drug holidays, sequential therapies, and strategies for avoiding serious adverse events.

• Studying barriers to ODT.

“When we have information on these outcomes, such as how medication use after a fragility fracture is linked to future fractures or survival rates, we need to understand how to convey that information to patients so they can make more informed decisions about their care,” noted Dr. Siu and colleagues.

In an editorial related to both the position paper and the systematic review, Carolyn J. Crandall, MD, of the University of California, Los Angeles, agreed that clinical trial data do not answer questions about shared decision making for women with multiple comorbid conditions, the long-term effects of ODT with regard to rare fracture risk, and which patients are well-suited for drug holidays.

“The National Institutes of Health should support research to answer these high-impact clinical questions, in addition to encouraging approaches for clinicians to determine which individual patients are at greater risk for harms related to long-term bisphosphonate use,” she said. “The need to rigorously study patient preferences in the context of ODT is pressing because of the complex dosing instructions of oral bisphosphonates and the dramatic underutilization of ODT among persons who have already had a vertebral or hip fracture.”

The systematic review was funded by the National Institutes of Health and the Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality. The authors of the position paper and Dr. Crandall reported no conflicts of interest.

SOURCE: Siu A et al. Ann Intern Med. 2019 April 23. doi: 10.7326/M19-0961.

Long-term use of alendronate and zoledronic acid for more than 3 years reduces the rate of vertebral fracture in treatment-naive postmenopausal women with notable, yet rare, adverse events, but too little evidence exists to make determinations on the long-term benefit/risk profile of other bisphosphonates or other osteoporosis drugs besides raloxifene and oral hormone therapy, according to a report coming out of a recent National Institutes of Health workshop.

This situation leaves a large research gap that authors of an accompanying position paper hope to bridge with recommendations for studying therapy discontinuation and drug holidays during long-term osteoporosis drug treatment.

The NIH’s Pathways to Prevention (P2P) Workshop: Appropriate Use of Drug Therapies for Osteoporotic Fracture Prevention outlined the findings of the systematic review of long-term osteoporosis drug treatment (ODT), which was commissioned by the NIH Office of Disease Prevention. The systematic review and a position paper summarizing the workshop were published April 23 in Annals of Internal Medicine.

“Clinicians and patients need increased information on benefits and risks to inform shared decision making about the use of these treatments, taking into account patients’ values and preferences,” Albert Siu, MD, of the Brookdale Department of Geriatrics and Palliative Medicine at the Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai in New York, and his colleagues wrote in the position paper (Ann Intern Med. 2019 Apr 23. doi: 10.7326/M19-0961). “The research ... is urgently needed to advance prevention of osteoporosis-related mortality and morbidity.”

In the systematic review, by a group of researchers separate from the workshop, 48 studies were identified (35 trials, 13 observational studies) that compared men and postmenopausal women 50 years or older who used treatments such as alendronate, raloxifene, zoledronic acid, and hormone therapy. The researchers found that use of alendronate for 4 years reduced the rate of clinical fractures (hazard ratio, 0.64; 95% confidence interval, 0.50-0.82) and radiographic vertebral fractures (HR, 0.50; 95% CI, 0.31-0.82) in women with osteoporosis. Raloxifene use for 4 years reduced the rate of clinical vertebral fractures (relative risk, 0.58; 95% CI, 0.43-0.79) and radiographic vertebral fractures (RR, 0.64; 95% CI, 0.53-0.76) but not nonvertebral fractures. Zoledronic acid use for 6 years was associated with a lower rate of nonvertebral fractures (HR, 0.66; 95% CI, 0.51-0.85) and clinical vertebral fractures (HR, 0.41; 95% CI, 0.22-0.75) in women with both osteoporosis and osteopenia. Estrogen-progestin use for 5.6 years and unopposed estrogen for 7 years was associated with clinical fracture reduction in women with unspecified osteoporosis and osteopenia when compared with placebo (Ann Intern Med. 2019 April 23. doi: 10.7326/M19-0533).

Controlled observational studies collectively show that long-term use of alendronate and of bisphosphonates as a class increased risk for radiologically confirmed atypical femoral fracture but by a small absolute amount, with less evidence for risks of subtrochanteric or femoral shaft fractures without radiologically confirmed atypical femoral fracture features and osteonecrosis of the jaw. However, there were no eligible observational studies with long-term use of zoledronic acid that evaluated risk for these adverse events.

Long-term raloxifene therapy was associated with a threefold increased risk for deep venous thrombosis and a three- to fourfold increased risk for pulmonary embolism, although not all results were statistically significant, the researchers said. In two long-term trials, both estrogen and estrogen-progestin compared with placebo increased risk for cardiovascular disease and cognitive impairment. Estrogen-progestin also increased risk for invasive breast cancer.

The researchers also studied abaloparatide, denosumab, ibandronate, risedronate, and teriparatide, but noted there were insufficient data to show the long-term effects of their use on fractures and other harms.

Dr. Siu and coauthors on the position paper made the following recommendations with regard to future research on long-term ODT:

• Using “innovative designs and approaches” for new research such as modeling studies, clinical trials, and observational studies of existing and potential treatments.

• Evaluating new agents or multicomponent interventions, such as fracture liaison services and oral care, that do not carry the downsides of antiresorptive therapies.

• Researching and preventing atypical femoral fracture and osteonecrosis of the jaw, particularly when associated with long-term denosumab or bisphosphonate use.

• Determining which patients are indicated for drug holidays, sequential therapies, and strategies for avoiding serious adverse events.

• Studying barriers to ODT.

“When we have information on these outcomes, such as how medication use after a fragility fracture is linked to future fractures or survival rates, we need to understand how to convey that information to patients so they can make more informed decisions about their care,” noted Dr. Siu and colleagues.

In an editorial related to both the position paper and the systematic review, Carolyn J. Crandall, MD, of the University of California, Los Angeles, agreed that clinical trial data do not answer questions about shared decision making for women with multiple comorbid conditions, the long-term effects of ODT with regard to rare fracture risk, and which patients are well-suited for drug holidays.

“The National Institutes of Health should support research to answer these high-impact clinical questions, in addition to encouraging approaches for clinicians to determine which individual patients are at greater risk for harms related to long-term bisphosphonate use,” she said. “The need to rigorously study patient preferences in the context of ODT is pressing because of the complex dosing instructions of oral bisphosphonates and the dramatic underutilization of ODT among persons who have already had a vertebral or hip fracture.”

The systematic review was funded by the National Institutes of Health and the Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality. The authors of the position paper and Dr. Crandall reported no conflicts of interest.

SOURCE: Siu A et al. Ann Intern Med. 2019 April 23. doi: 10.7326/M19-0961.

My son and I used to play a game called CASHFLOW. It was invented by Robert Kiyosaki, the real estate magnate who originated the “Rich Dad Poor Dad” book series to educate the masses on the basics of real estate investing.

Courtesy Rich Dad Company

The object of the game was to acquire enough passive income to become independent of active income like salary. The hope was that by playing the game, participants would recognize the advantages of passive income and become entrepreneurs in real estate or business. The winner was no longer an employee, but happily self-employed and out of the rat race.

Alas, the lesson was lost on me and my son. Both of us are still very much in the rat race and dependent on salary.

But a rat race can be more than just a competitive quest for financial gain. In politics, the quest is more for power. In sports, the quest includes championships. In academic medicine – and hematology is usually practiced in an academic setting – the quest is often for power and prestige. Training for our hematologic quest began in high school.

In high school, superior grades were a given, but we also worked to excel in sports, extracurricular activities, and standardized tests in order to get into the best universities. The cycle was then repeated to allow entry into the best medical schools. The old adage that students who finished last in their medical school class are still addressed as “Doctor” notwithstanding, most of us pushed ourselves beyond good grades to volunteer work, research activities, and prestigious clerkships to ensure that we matched at the best residency programs. There, those inclined to hematology cozied up to influential faculty by helping with their research in order to obtain the cherished letter of recommendation that promised admission to the best fellowship program, where the cycle was again repeated in the hope of landing a position in the best academic medical center.

Through these pursuits, young recruits to medical academia are primed and ready to enter a rat race of individual accomplishment. The academic rat race is a particularly pernicious result of our training to be the best, and the “best” hematologists are found at the podium, not in the exam room.

Not content to be recognized for clinical excellence by their patients, academic hematologists often aspire more to be recognized for content expertise by their peers. Through the noble pursuit of advancing science, peer recognition bestows prestige and power in the form of promotions, grants, advisory boards, consultancies, and speaking opportunities all over the globe. For some, the academic rat race validates a life dedicated to being the best.

However, the demands of patient care can interfere with academic pursuits and stand as impediments to the march of science, with its attendant rewards in power and prestige. The most common complaint I get from my team is the inability to fully participate in all that is required to succeed academically because of clinical responsibilities. The difficulty is worsened when financial realities require even more time spent in the clinic to generate income. This makes it hard enough to keep a healthy balance between research and patient care. When the pressures of clinical and academic hematology are combined with the responsibility of family, the rat race can begin to lead to burnout.


A rat race forces us to compare ourselves to others, and we often find ourselves wanting. There is always someone who seems wealthier and wiser than we are. Our training often compels us to compete with whoever it is we are comparing ourselves to. That competition simultaneously drives us toward a laudable goal and away from a balanced, happy life.

Theodore Roosevelt said “Comparison is the thief of joy,” and that certainly seems to be the case among medical professionals. As physicians, we do not lack for wealth, unless we compare ourselves to those who have more. We do not lack for wisdom, unless we compare ourselves to those who have more. We’d see that we really lack very little and occupy a privileged place in society if we only took the time to be grateful for having had the talent and support to do so.

I enjoyed playing CASHFLOW when I was younger and naively thought that either my son or I might materially benefit from its lessons. I realize now that the real enjoyment of playing was not to win or to get rich, but rather to spend time with my son. Likewise, our training got us where we are, and it will sustain a happy fulfilling career, but it will also consume us if we let go of why we started playing the game in the first place.

Dr. Kalaycio is editor in chief of Hematology News. He chairs the department of hematology and medical oncology at Cleveland Clinic Taussig Cancer Institute. Contact him at [email protected].

My son and I used to play a game called CASHFLOW. It was invented by Robert Kiyosaki, the real estate magnate who originated the “Rich Dad Poor Dad” book series to educate the masses on the basics of real estate investing.

Courtesy Rich Dad Company

The object of the game was to acquire enough passive income to become independent of active income like salary. The hope was that by playing the game, participants would recognize the advantages of passive income and become entrepreneurs in real estate or business. The winner was no longer an employee, but happily self-employed and out of the rat race.

Alas, the lesson was lost on me and my son. Both of us are still very much in the rat race and dependent on salary.

But a rat race can be more than just a competitive quest for financial gain. In politics, the quest is more for power. In sports, the quest includes championships. In academic medicine – and hematology is usually practiced in an academic setting – the quest is often for power and prestige. Training for our hematologic quest began in high school.

In high school, superior grades were a given, but we also worked to excel in sports, extracurricular activities, and standardized tests in order to get into the best universities. The cycle was then repeated to allow entry into the best medical schools. The old adage that students who finished last in their medical school class are still addressed as “Doctor” notwithstanding, most of us pushed ourselves beyond good grades to volunteer work, research activities, and prestigious clerkships to ensure that we matched at the best residency programs. There, those inclined to hematology cozied up to influential faculty by helping with their research in order to obtain the cherished letter of recommendation that promised admission to the best fellowship program, where the cycle was again repeated in the hope of landing a position in the best academic medical center.

Through these pursuits, young recruits to medical academia are primed and ready to enter a rat race of individual accomplishment. The academic rat race is a particularly pernicious result of our training to be the best, and the “best” hematologists are found at the podium, not in the exam room.

Not content to be recognized for clinical excellence by their patients, academic hematologists often aspire more to be recognized for content expertise by their peers. Through the noble pursuit of advancing science, peer recognition bestows prestige and power in the form of promotions, grants, advisory boards, consultancies, and speaking opportunities all over the globe. For some, the academic rat race validates a life dedicated to being the best.

However, the demands of patient care can interfere with academic pursuits and stand as impediments to the march of science, with its attendant rewards in power and prestige. The most common complaint I get from my team is the inability to fully participate in all that is required to succeed academically because of clinical responsibilities. The difficulty is worsened when financial realities require even more time spent in the clinic to generate income. This makes it hard enough to keep a healthy balance between research and patient care. When the pressures of clinical and academic hematology are combined with the responsibility of family, the rat race can begin to lead to burnout.


A rat race forces us to compare ourselves to others, and we often find ourselves wanting. There is always someone who seems wealthier and wiser than we are. Our training often compels us to compete with whoever it is we are comparing ourselves to. That competition simultaneously drives us toward a laudable goal and away from a balanced, happy life.

Theodore Roosevelt said “Comparison is the thief of joy,” and that certainly seems to be the case among medical professionals. As physicians, we do not lack for wealth, unless we compare ourselves to those who have more. We do not lack for wisdom, unless we compare ourselves to those who have more. We’d see that we really lack very little and occupy a privileged place in society if we only took the time to be grateful for having had the talent and support to do so.

I enjoyed playing CASHFLOW when I was younger and naively thought that either my son or I might materially benefit from its lessons. I realize now that the real enjoyment of playing was not to win or to get rich, but rather to spend time with my son. Likewise, our training got us where we are, and it will sustain a happy fulfilling career, but it will also consume us if we let go of why we started playing the game in the first place.

Dr. Kalaycio is editor in chief of Hematology News. He chairs the department of hematology and medical oncology at Cleveland Clinic Taussig Cancer Institute. Contact him at [email protected].

My son and I used to play a game called CASHFLOW. It was invented by Robert Kiyosaki, the real estate magnate who originated the “Rich Dad Poor Dad” book series to educate the masses on the basics of real estate investing.

Courtesy Rich Dad Company

The object of the game was to acquire enough passive income to become independent of active income like salary. The hope was that by playing the game, participants would recognize the advantages of passive income and become entrepreneurs in real estate or business. The winner was no longer an employee, but happily self-employed and out of the rat race.

Alas, the lesson was lost on me and my son. Both of us are still very much in the rat race and dependent on salary.

But a rat race can be more than just a competitive quest for financial gain. In politics, the quest is more for power. In sports, the quest includes championships. In academic medicine – and hematology is usually practiced in an academic setting – the quest is often for power and prestige. Training for our hematologic quest began in high school.

In high school, superior grades were a given, but we also worked to excel in sports, extracurricular activities, and standardized tests in order to get into the best universities. The cycle was then repeated to allow entry into the best medical schools. The old adage that students who finished last in their medical school class are still addressed as “Doctor” notwithstanding, most of us pushed ourselves beyond good grades to volunteer work, research activities, and prestigious clerkships to ensure that we matched at the best residency programs. There, those inclined to hematology cozied up to influential faculty by helping with their research in order to obtain the cherished letter of recommendation that promised admission to the best fellowship program, where the cycle was again repeated in the hope of landing a position in the best academic medical center.

Through these pursuits, young recruits to medical academia are primed and ready to enter a rat race of individual accomplishment. The academic rat race is a particularly pernicious result of our training to be the best, and the “best” hematologists are found at the podium, not in the exam room.

Not content to be recognized for clinical excellence by their patients, academic hematologists often aspire more to be recognized for content expertise by their peers. Through the noble pursuit of advancing science, peer recognition bestows prestige and power in the form of promotions, grants, advisory boards, consultancies, and speaking opportunities all over the globe. For some, the academic rat race validates a life dedicated to being the best.

However, the demands of patient care can interfere with academic pursuits and stand as impediments to the march of science, with its attendant rewards in power and prestige. The most common complaint I get from my team is the inability to fully participate in all that is required to succeed academically because of clinical responsibilities. The difficulty is worsened when financial realities require even more time spent in the clinic to generate income. This makes it hard enough to keep a healthy balance between research and patient care. When the pressures of clinical and academic hematology are combined with the responsibility of family, the rat race can begin to lead to burnout.


A rat race forces us to compare ourselves to others, and we often find ourselves wanting. There is always someone who seems wealthier and wiser than we are. Our training often compels us to compete with whoever it is we are comparing ourselves to. That competition simultaneously drives us toward a laudable goal and away from a balanced, happy life.

Theodore Roosevelt said “Comparison is the thief of joy,” and that certainly seems to be the case among medical professionals. As physicians, we do not lack for wealth, unless we compare ourselves to those who have more. We do not lack for wisdom, unless we compare ourselves to those who have more. We’d see that we really lack very little and occupy a privileged place in society if we only took the time to be grateful for having had the talent and support to do so.

I enjoyed playing CASHFLOW when I was younger and naively thought that either my son or I might materially benefit from its lessons. I realize now that the real enjoyment of playing was not to win or to get rich, but rather to spend time with my son. Likewise, our training got us where we are, and it will sustain a happy fulfilling career, but it will also consume us if we let go of why we started playing the game in the first place.

Dr. Kalaycio is editor in chief of Hematology News. He chairs the department of hematology and medical oncology at Cleveland Clinic Taussig Cancer Institute. Contact him at [email protected].

A 48-year-old man presents to his primary care physician because of progressively decreasing energy and gradual decline in both libido and erectile function for the past 18 months. He has noticed decreased morning erections as well. He rates his libido at 3 to 4 on a scale of 10 for the past 6 months. He also reports poor motivation, depressed mood, impaired concentration, and sleep disturbances. He reports no hair loss, headache, or dizziness, and no decrease in shaving frequency. Review of his systems is otherwise unremarkable.

He has had dyslipidemia for 3 years and is not known to have hypertension or diabetes. His medications include atorvastatin, vitamin E, and multivitamins.

He is married with 3 children and does not wish to have more. He works as a software engineer and leads a sedentary lifestyle. He is a nonsmoker and occasionally drinks alcohol on the weekends.

On physical examination, he is alert and oriented and appears well. His height is 5 feet 10 inches (178 cm), weight 230 lb (104 kg), and body mass index (BMI) 32.8 kg/m². His blood pressure is 115/83 mm Hg and pulse rate is 82 beats per minute and regular. Findings on cardiovascular and pulmonary examination are normal. He has large fatty breasts but without palpable glandular tissue.

Genitourinary examination reveals normal hair distribution, a normal-sized penis, and slightly soft testes with testicular volume of 18–20 mL bilaterally.

His primary care physician suspects that he has low testosterone and orders some basic laboratory tests; the results are normal except for a low total testosterone level (Table 1).

FURTHER TESTING

1. Which of the following tests should his physician order next?

• Repeat total testosterone measurement
• Free testosterone measurement by commercial assay
• Calculated free testosterone
• Bioavailable testosterone measurement
• Serum inhibin B measurement

This patient presents with several nonspecific symptoms. But collectively they suggest testosterone deficiency (hypogonadism).

Together, erectile dysfunction, low libido, and decreased morning erections strongly suggest hypogonadism.² Loss of body hair and decreased shaving frequency are specific symptoms of hypogonadism; however, they require years to develop.³ Gynecomastia can also occur due to loss of the inhibitory action of testosterone on breast growth and a relative increase in estradiol. This occurs more in primary hypogonadism, due to the increase in luteinizing hormone (LH), which stimulates the remaining Leydig cells to secrete estradiol rather than testosterone.⁴

To diagnose hypogonadism in men and to start treatment for it, current guidelines recommend that the patient should have clinical features as well as laboratory evidence of low testosterone.^5,6

Measuring testosterone: Total, free, bound, and bioavailable

Testosterone, a steroid hormone, circulates in the serum either as free testosterone or bound to several plasma proteins, mainly sex-hormone binding globulin (SHBG) and albumin.

Total testosterone includes both the free and bound fractions, whereas bioavailable testosterone includes both free and the portion bound to albumin, which has low affinity and can dissociate and be used at the tissue level.¹¹

Low levels of total testosterone do not necessarily reflect a hypogonadal state, as a man with altered SHBG levels or binding capabilities can have low total but normal free testosterone levels and no manifestations.¹² Several conditions can alter the levels of SHBG, including obesity, diabetes, aging, thyroid dysfunction, and others.^5,13

Because our patient is obese, his total testosterone level is not a reliable indicator of hypogonadism, and repeating its measurement will not add diagnostic value.

Therefore, an alternative measurement should be used to accurately reflect the testosterone levels. From a physiologic point of view, bioavailable testosterone is the active form of testosterone and is the most accurate to be measured in a patient with hypogonadism. Nevertheless, because of technical difficulties in its measurement and lack of evidence correlating bioavailable testosterone with the clinical picture of hypogonadism, it is recommended that the level of free testosterone be used.⁵

The gold standard for direct measurement of serum free testosterone is equilibrium dialysis, but this is expensive and time-consuming.¹⁴ Commercial assays for free testosterone exist but have been deemed unreliable.^14,15 It is recommended that free testosterone be measured by equilibrium dialysis or calculated using equations based on total testosterone, SHBG, and albumin levels.⁵ These equations are reliable and give results very close to the values obtained by equilibrium dialysis.¹⁵ Therefore, in our patient, it would be suitable to calculate the free testosterone level next.

Serum levels of free testosterone vary according to several factors. Diurnal variation of testosterone has been established: levels are highest in the morning and decline throughout the day.¹⁶ Food decreases testosterone levels.¹⁷ In addition, there is considerable day-to-day variation.¹8 Therefore, at least 2 readings of fasting morning testosterone on 2 separate days are recommended for the diagnosis of hypogonadism.⁵

Inhibin B is a hormone produced by Sertoli cells in the testes in response to follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) stimulation. In turn, it acts as negative feedback, together with testosterone, to inhibit FSH release from the pituitary. Inhibin B has been shown to reflect spermatogenesis in the testes and therefore fertility.¹⁹ Inhibin B levels were found to be low in patients with central hypogonadism, due to less FSH release; however, they did not correlate with testosterone levels.²⁰

The patient’s physician orders morning fasting total testosterone, SHBG, and albumin testing and calculates the free testosterone level, which yields a value of 3 ng/dL (reference range 4.5–17). This is confirmed by a repeat measurement, which yields a value of 2.9 ng/dL. Laboratory test results combined with his clinical presentation are consistent with hypogonadism.

2. What is the most appropriate next step?

• Measurement of serum LH and FSH
• Measurement of serum prolactin
• Scrotal ultrasonography
• Gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) stimulation test
• Semen analysis

After hypogonadism is diagnosed, it is important to distinguish if it is primary or central. This is achieved by measuring serum LH and FSH.⁵ All biotin supplements should be stopped at least 72 hours before measuring LH and FSH, as biotin can interfere with the assays, yielding false values.²¹

Secretion of FSH and LH from the anterior pituitary is under the influence of pulsatile release of GnRH from the hypothalamus. LH acts on Leydig cells in the testes to produce testosterone, whereas FSH acts on Sertoli cells, together with testosterone, to bring about spermatogenesis in the seminiferous tubules. Testosterone acts centrally as negative feedback to decrease the release of LH and FSH.

Primary hypogonadism occurs due to testicular failure, ie, the testes themselves fail to produce testosterone, leading to hypogonadism. The decrease in testosterone levels, together with inhibin B if Sertoli cells are damaged, lead to loss of negative feedback on the hypothalamus and pituitary, and therefore increased levels of LH and FSH. This is termed hypergonadotropic hypogonadism. Testicular failure may also result in impaired spermatogenesis and infertility due to destruction of testicular structures, in which case fertility cannot be restored.

Central hypogonadism occurs when the pituitary fails to produce LH and FSH (secondary hypogonadism) or when the hypothalamus fails to produce GnRH and subsequently the lack of secretion of LH and FSH from the pituitary (tertiary hypogonadism). The lack of LH will result in no stimulation of Leydig cells to produce testosterone, and therefore its deficiency. Serum hormone levels in central hypogonadism will reveal low testosterone, with either low or inappropriately normal gonadotropins (LH and FSH). This is termed hypogonadotropic hypogonadism. The lack of FSH, together with testosterone deficiency will also result in decreased spermatogenesis and therefore infertility. Testicular structures are preserved, however, and fertility can be restored with appropriate therapy, as discussed below.

Prolactin should be measured only if the patient has central hypogonadism. Its measurement is not warranted at this point in the patient’s workup. The implications of prolactin and its relationship to hypogonadism will be discussed later.

Although, this stepwise approach is not convenient for many patients, some physicians follow it because it is cost-effective, especially in those who are not insured. However, other physicians order FSH, LH, and sometimes prolactin with the confirmatory low testosterone measurement. Laboratories can also be instructed to wait to measure the pituitary hormones and to do so only if low testosterone is confirmed.

Varicocele, a possible cause of male infertility, can also impair Leydig cell function and cause low testosterone. In fact, surgical repair of varicocele has been demonstrated to increase serum testosterone.²² Scrotal ultrasonography is used to diagnose varicocele, but this also should be ordered at a later stage in the workup if primary hypogonadism is diagnosed.

The GnRH stimulation test is important for the diagnosis and evaluation of precocious or delayed puberty in children. In boys with delayed puberty, a poorer response to GnRH stimulation indicates central hypogonadism rather than constitutional delay.²³ It has no role in the evaluation of postpubertal or adult-onset hypogonadism.

Semen analysis is important to evaluate fertility if the patient is interested in further procreation.⁵ Low testosterone levels may result in impaired spermatogenesis and therefore infertility. On the other hand, treatment with exogenous testosterone will also result in infertility, by feedback inhibition of LH and FSH and therefore inhibition of spermatogenesis. If the patient wishes to preserve fertility, treatment options other than testosterone should be considered; examples include clomiphene citrate, human menopausal gonadotropin, and human chorionic gonadotropin.^23,24

Our patient has no desire to expand his family; therefore, a semen analysis and attempts to preserve spermatogenesis are not indicated.

His physician orders testing of serum LH and FSH, yielding the following values:

• LH 1.6 mIU/mL (reference range 1.8–12)
• FSH 1.9 mIU/mL (reference range 1.5–12.5).

The diagnosis of central hypogonadism is established.

3. Which investigation is the least appropriate in the further evaluation of this patient?

• 
  Serum free thyroxine (T₄) and morning cortisol measurement
• Serum prolactin measurement
• Serum ferritin measurement
• Pituitary magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)
• Chromosomal karyotyping

The diagnosis of central hypogonadism warrants evaluation for possible causes. These are summarized in Table 4.

Serum free thyroxine and morning cortisol

Since this patient’s LH and FSH values are abnormal, it is important to evaluate the status of other anterior pituitary hormones. In patients with pituitary abnormalities, serum free T₄ is a more reliable test for assessing thyroid function than thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH), because of loss of the negative feedback of thyroid hormones on the diseased pituitary. In contrast, serum TSH is considered the best single thyroid test to assess primary thyroid dysfunction.

Other measurements include prolactin and morning cortisol (reflecting adrenocorticotropic hormone status).

Prolactin measurement

Prolactin measurement is important to evaluate for hyperprolactinemia, as this will lead to hypogonadism by inhibition of GnRH secretion.²⁵ Different pathologic, pharmacologic, and physiologic conditions can result in hyperprolactinemia, including prolactinomas, other pituitary and hypothalamic lesions, primary hypothyroidism, and medications such as antipsychotics.²⁵ Dopamine agonists are the mainstay treatment for hyperprolactinemia.

Ferritin measurement

Ferritin measurement is indicated to diagnose iron overload conditions such as hemochromatosis, which can result in primary hypogonadism via testicular damage or in secondary hypogonadism via pituitary damage.²⁶

Pituitary MRI with contrast

Pituitary MRI with contrast is used to diagnose structural lesions of the pituitary or hypothalamus. This diagnostic modality is indicated for patients with pituitary dysfunction, including central hypogonadism, manifestations of a mass effect (headache, visual field defects), persistent hyperprolactinemia, and panhypopituitarism, among others. To improve the diagnostic yield of pituitary MRI, the Endocrine Society guidelines recommend it for men with serum total testosterone levels below 150 ng/dL.⁵ However, some clinicians have a lower threshold for ordering pituitary MRI for patients with central hypogonadism. Physician judgment and expertise should be exercised and the decision made on an individual basis.

Chromosomal karyotyping

Chromosomal karyotyping is not indicated in our patient. It is reserved for those with primary hypogonadism to diagnose Klinefelter syndrome, which has a karyotype of 47,XXY.

CASE RESUMED: MOSH SYNDROME

Our patient’s prolactin, free T₄, morning cortisol, and ferritin levels are measured, yielding normal values. No abnormalities are seen on pituitary MRI. A clinical reevaluation is conducted, revealing no history of head trauma or head and neck radiation. The lack of an obvious cause in our patient’s clinical presentation and workup, together with his obesity (BMI 32.8 kg/m²) supports the diagnosis of obesity as the cause of his hypogonadism.

Obesity can be a cause of secondary hypogonadism, which has led to the term “MOSH” (male obesity-associated secondary hypogonadism) syndrome. In fact, a cross-sectional study has demonstrated that 40% of nondiabetic obese (BMI ≥ 30 kg/m²) men over age 45 have low serum free testosterone levels, compared with 26% for lean (BMI < 25 kg/m²) men.²⁷ Moreover, obesity has been found to be a strong predictor of testosterone replacement therapy.²⁸ Other studies have also found an inverse relationship between BMI and testosterone levels.²⁹

Several mechanisms interact in the pathogenesis of MOSH syndrome. Adipose tissue possesses aromatase activity, which converts androgens into estrogens.³⁰ Peripheral estrogen production can in turn exert feedback inhibition on pituitary gonadotropin secretion.³¹ In obese men, increased adipose tissue leads to increased aromatase activity and more estrogen, so more feedback inhibition on the pituitary and subsequently secondary hypogonadism. 


Leptin, a hormone produced by adipocytes, is also increased in obesity, and was found to be inversely correlated with serum testosterone.³² Studies have demonstrated that leptin has an inhibitory effect on the enzymatic pathway that synthesizes testosterone in Leydig cells.³³

Proinflammatory cytokines have also been implicated, as central obesity is associated with an increase in these cytokines, which in turn act negatively on the hypothalamus and impair GnRH release leading to lower testosterone.^34,35

Treating obesity-related hypogonadism

In a pilot study,³⁶ lifestyle attempts to reduce obesity were shown to improve hormonal levels. Bariatric surgery has also been demonstrated to be successful.³⁷

Clomiphene citrate, a selective estrogen receptor modulator, increases endogenous testosterone secretion by inhibiting the negative feedback of estrogen on the hypothalamus and pituitary and thus increasing LH and FSH. It also preserves endogenous testosterone production, since it does not suppress the hypothalamic-pituitary-testicular axis.³⁸ This made clomiphene citrate a potential treatment for men with central hypogonadism including those with MOSH.³⁹

Nevertheless, there are no randomized trials to prove its safety and efficacy in the management of central hypogonadism.⁵ Regarding its use in men wishing to preserve fertility, most studies did not show improvement. However, a meta-analysis demonstrated statistically significant increased pregnancy rates in partners of men with idiopathic infertility if the men used 50 mg of clomiphene citrate daily.⁴⁰

Testosterone deficiency can be a marker of metabolic syndrome, which needs to be managed more urgently than hypogonadism. A cross-sectional study found not only an association between metabolic syndrome and low serum testosterone, but also with each individual component of metabolic syndrome on its own, all of which need to be addressed.¹⁰

The physician counsels the patient regarding the implications, potential adverse outcomes, and available treatments for his obesity, including lifestyle modification and bariatric surgery. The patient declines surgery and wishes to adopt a weight-reducing diet and exercise program, for which he is referred to a dietitian.

In addition, in view of the patient’s clinically and biochemically proven hypogonadism, his physician offers testosterone replacement therapy. He orders a serum prostate-specific antigen (PSA) level, which is 1.3 ng/dL (reference range < 4 ng/dL). The patient is prescribed 5 g of 1% testosterone gel daily.

TESTOSTERONE REPLACEMENT THERAPY

4. Which is the most common adverse effect of testosterone replacement therapy?

• Cardiovascular events
• Erythrocytosis
• Prostate cancer
• Infertility
• Obstructive sleep apnea

Clinicians should be very cautious in initiating testosterone replacement therapy in any patient with an unstable medical condition.

There are several formulations of testosterone replacement therapy, including intramuscular injections, transdermal gels or patches, buccal tablets, an intranasal gel, and oral tablets. Of note, there are 2 different forms of oral testosterone preparations: testosterone undecanoate and 17-alpha alkylated testosterone. The former is unavailable in the United States and the latter is not recommended for use due to its proven hepatic toxicity.⁴¹

Testosterone and erythrocytosis

Meta-analyses have concluded that the most frequent adverse event of testosterone replacement therapy is a significant rise in hematocrit.⁴² This rise was found to be dose-dependent and was more marked in older men.⁴³ Although all preparations can cause erythrocytosis, parenteral forms have been observed to raise it the most, particularly short-term injectables.^44,45

The mechanism behind this increase is attributed to increased erythropoietin levels and improved usage of iron for red blood cell synthesis.⁴⁶ In fact, testosterone replacement therapy has been shown to improve hemoglobin levels in patients with anemia.⁴⁷ On the other hand, increasing hematocrit levels may lead to thrombotic and vasoocclusive events.⁴⁴

Testosterone and prostate cancer

The relationship between testosterone treatment and prostate cancer has long been studied. Historically, testosterone replacement therapy was believed to increase the risk of prostate cancer; however, recent studies and meta-analyses have shown that this is not the case.^42,48 Nevertheless, clinical guidelines still recommend prostate monitoring for men on testosterone replacement therapy.^5,6

Testosterone and cardiovascular risk

The evidence regarding this issue has been contradictory and inconsistent. Meta-analyses have demonstrated that low testosterone is associated with higher risk of major adverse cardiovascular events.⁵⁰ These studies argue for the use of testosterone replacement therapy in hypogonadal men to decrease the risk. However, other studies and meta-analyses have found that testosterone replacement therapy is associated with increased cardiovascular risk and have concluded that major adverse cardiac events are in fact a risk of testosterone replacement therapy.⁵¹

Current recommendations advocate against the use of testosterone replacement therapy in men with uncontrolled heart failure or with cardiovascular events in the past 3 to 6 months.^5,6 Cardiovascular risk factors should be addressed and corrected, and patients should be educated on cardiovascular symptoms and the need to report them if they occur.

Testosterone and infertility

As described earlier, testosterone replacement therapy increases negative feedback on the pituitary and decreases LH and FSH production, leading to less spermatogenesis. Other treatment options should be sought for hypogonadal men wishing to preserve fertility.

Other adverse effects

Other adverse effects of testosterone replacement therapy include acne, oily skin, obstructive sleep apnea, gynecomastia, and balding.

Given all the adverse events that can be associated with testosterone replacement therapy, the risks and benefits of treating hypogonadism in each patient should be taken into consideration, and an individualized approach is required.

The patient presents 3 months later for follow-up. He reports significant improvement in his presenting symptoms including energy, libido, and erectile function. He also reports some improvement in his mood and concentration. He has lost 12 lb (5.4 kg) and is still trying to improve his diet and exercise program. He is compliant with his testosterone gel therapy.

His serum calculated free testosterone level is 7.8 ng/dL (4.5–17), and his hematocrit is 46%. The patient is instructed to continue his treatment and to return after 9 months for further follow-up.

TAKE-HOME POINTS

• Men with hypogonadism usually present with nonspecific manifestations, so clinicians should keep a high index of suspicion.
• Both clinical and biochemical evidence of hypogonadism should be present to diagnose and start treatment for it.
• Low levels of serum total testosterone do not necessarily reflect hypogonadism.
• The hormonal profile of central hypogonadism reveals low serum testosterone with low or inappropriately normal serum LH and FSH levels.

Obesity can cause central hypogonadism and should be suspected after pituitary and other systemic causes are excluded.

A 48-year-old man presents to his primary care physician because of progressively decreasing energy and gradual decline in both libido and erectile function for the past 18 months. He has noticed decreased morning erections as well. He rates his libido at 3 to 4 on a scale of 10 for the past 6 months. He also reports poor motivation, depressed mood, impaired concentration, and sleep disturbances. He reports no hair loss, headache, or dizziness, and no decrease in shaving frequency. Review of his systems is otherwise unremarkable.

He has had dyslipidemia for 3 years and is not known to have hypertension or diabetes. His medications include atorvastatin, vitamin E, and multivitamins.

He is married with 3 children and does not wish to have more. He works as a software engineer and leads a sedentary lifestyle. He is a nonsmoker and occasionally drinks alcohol on the weekends.

On physical examination, he is alert and oriented and appears well. His height is 5 feet 10 inches (178 cm), weight 230 lb (104 kg), and body mass index (BMI) 32.8 kg/m². His blood pressure is 115/83 mm Hg and pulse rate is 82 beats per minute and regular. Findings on cardiovascular and pulmonary examination are normal. He has large fatty breasts but without palpable glandular tissue.

Genitourinary examination reveals normal hair distribution, a normal-sized penis, and slightly soft testes with testicular volume of 18–20 mL bilaterally.

His primary care physician suspects that he has low testosterone and orders some basic laboratory tests; the results are normal except for a low total testosterone level (Table 1).

FURTHER TESTING

1. Which of the following tests should his physician order next?

• Repeat total testosterone measurement
• Free testosterone measurement by commercial assay
• Calculated free testosterone
• Bioavailable testosterone measurement
• Serum inhibin B measurement

This patient presents with several nonspecific symptoms. But collectively they suggest testosterone deficiency (hypogonadism).

Together, erectile dysfunction, low libido, and decreased morning erections strongly suggest hypogonadism.² Loss of body hair and decreased shaving frequency are specific symptoms of hypogonadism; however, they require years to develop.³ Gynecomastia can also occur due to loss of the inhibitory action of testosterone on breast growth and a relative increase in estradiol. This occurs more in primary hypogonadism, due to the increase in luteinizing hormone (LH), which stimulates the remaining Leydig cells to secrete estradiol rather than testosterone.⁴

To diagnose hypogonadism in men and to start treatment for it, current guidelines recommend that the patient should have clinical features as well as laboratory evidence of low testosterone.^5,6

Measuring testosterone: Total, free, bound, and bioavailable

Testosterone, a steroid hormone, circulates in the serum either as free testosterone or bound to several plasma proteins, mainly sex-hormone binding globulin (SHBG) and albumin.

Total testosterone includes both the free and bound fractions, whereas bioavailable testosterone includes both free and the portion bound to albumin, which has low affinity and can dissociate and be used at the tissue level.¹¹

Low levels of total testosterone do not necessarily reflect a hypogonadal state, as a man with altered SHBG levels or binding capabilities can have low total but normal free testosterone levels and no manifestations.¹² Several conditions can alter the levels of SHBG, including obesity, diabetes, aging, thyroid dysfunction, and others.^5,13

Because our patient is obese, his total testosterone level is not a reliable indicator of hypogonadism, and repeating its measurement will not add diagnostic value.

Therefore, an alternative measurement should be used to accurately reflect the testosterone levels. From a physiologic point of view, bioavailable testosterone is the active form of testosterone and is the most accurate to be measured in a patient with hypogonadism. Nevertheless, because of technical difficulties in its measurement and lack of evidence correlating bioavailable testosterone with the clinical picture of hypogonadism, it is recommended that the level of free testosterone be used.⁵

The gold standard for direct measurement of serum free testosterone is equilibrium dialysis, but this is expensive and time-consuming.¹⁴ Commercial assays for free testosterone exist but have been deemed unreliable.^14,15 It is recommended that free testosterone be measured by equilibrium dialysis or calculated using equations based on total testosterone, SHBG, and albumin levels.⁵ These equations are reliable and give results very close to the values obtained by equilibrium dialysis.¹⁵ Therefore, in our patient, it would be suitable to calculate the free testosterone level next.

Serum levels of free testosterone vary according to several factors. Diurnal variation of testosterone has been established: levels are highest in the morning and decline throughout the day.¹⁶ Food decreases testosterone levels.¹⁷ In addition, there is considerable day-to-day variation.¹8 Therefore, at least 2 readings of fasting morning testosterone on 2 separate days are recommended for the diagnosis of hypogonadism.⁵

Inhibin B is a hormone produced by Sertoli cells in the testes in response to follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) stimulation. In turn, it acts as negative feedback, together with testosterone, to inhibit FSH release from the pituitary. Inhibin B has been shown to reflect spermatogenesis in the testes and therefore fertility.¹⁹ Inhibin B levels were found to be low in patients with central hypogonadism, due to less FSH release; however, they did not correlate with testosterone levels.²⁰

The patient’s physician orders morning fasting total testosterone, SHBG, and albumin testing and calculates the free testosterone level, which yields a value of 3 ng/dL (reference range 4.5–17). This is confirmed by a repeat measurement, which yields a value of 2.9 ng/dL. Laboratory test results combined with his clinical presentation are consistent with hypogonadism.

2. What is the most appropriate next step?

• Measurement of serum LH and FSH
• Measurement of serum prolactin
• Scrotal ultrasonography
• Gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) stimulation test
• Semen analysis

After hypogonadism is diagnosed, it is important to distinguish if it is primary or central. This is achieved by measuring serum LH and FSH.⁵ All biotin supplements should be stopped at least 72 hours before measuring LH and FSH, as biotin can interfere with the assays, yielding false values.²¹

Secretion of FSH and LH from the anterior pituitary is under the influence of pulsatile release of GnRH from the hypothalamus. LH acts on Leydig cells in the testes to produce testosterone, whereas FSH acts on Sertoli cells, together with testosterone, to bring about spermatogenesis in the seminiferous tubules. Testosterone acts centrally as negative feedback to decrease the release of LH and FSH.

Primary hypogonadism occurs due to testicular failure, ie, the testes themselves fail to produce testosterone, leading to hypogonadism. The decrease in testosterone levels, together with inhibin B if Sertoli cells are damaged, lead to loss of negative feedback on the hypothalamus and pituitary, and therefore increased levels of LH and FSH. This is termed hypergonadotropic hypogonadism. Testicular failure may also result in impaired spermatogenesis and infertility due to destruction of testicular structures, in which case fertility cannot be restored.

Central hypogonadism occurs when the pituitary fails to produce LH and FSH (secondary hypogonadism) or when the hypothalamus fails to produce GnRH and subsequently the lack of secretion of LH and FSH from the pituitary (tertiary hypogonadism). The lack of LH will result in no stimulation of Leydig cells to produce testosterone, and therefore its deficiency. Serum hormone levels in central hypogonadism will reveal low testosterone, with either low or inappropriately normal gonadotropins (LH and FSH). This is termed hypogonadotropic hypogonadism. The lack of FSH, together with testosterone deficiency will also result in decreased spermatogenesis and therefore infertility. Testicular structures are preserved, however, and fertility can be restored with appropriate therapy, as discussed below.

Prolactin should be measured only if the patient has central hypogonadism. Its measurement is not warranted at this point in the patient’s workup. The implications of prolactin and its relationship to hypogonadism will be discussed later.

Although, this stepwise approach is not convenient for many patients, some physicians follow it because it is cost-effective, especially in those who are not insured. However, other physicians order FSH, LH, and sometimes prolactin with the confirmatory low testosterone measurement. Laboratories can also be instructed to wait to measure the pituitary hormones and to do so only if low testosterone is confirmed.

Varicocele, a possible cause of male infertility, can also impair Leydig cell function and cause low testosterone. In fact, surgical repair of varicocele has been demonstrated to increase serum testosterone.²² Scrotal ultrasonography is used to diagnose varicocele, but this also should be ordered at a later stage in the workup if primary hypogonadism is diagnosed.

The GnRH stimulation test is important for the diagnosis and evaluation of precocious or delayed puberty in children. In boys with delayed puberty, a poorer response to GnRH stimulation indicates central hypogonadism rather than constitutional delay.²³ It has no role in the evaluation of postpubertal or adult-onset hypogonadism.

Semen analysis is important to evaluate fertility if the patient is interested in further procreation.⁵ Low testosterone levels may result in impaired spermatogenesis and therefore infertility. On the other hand, treatment with exogenous testosterone will also result in infertility, by feedback inhibition of LH and FSH and therefore inhibition of spermatogenesis. If the patient wishes to preserve fertility, treatment options other than testosterone should be considered; examples include clomiphene citrate, human menopausal gonadotropin, and human chorionic gonadotropin.^23,24

Our patient has no desire to expand his family; therefore, a semen analysis and attempts to preserve spermatogenesis are not indicated.

His physician orders testing of serum LH and FSH, yielding the following values:

• LH 1.6 mIU/mL (reference range 1.8–12)
• FSH 1.9 mIU/mL (reference range 1.5–12.5).

The diagnosis of central hypogonadism is established.

3. Which investigation is the least appropriate in the further evaluation of this patient?

• 
  Serum free thyroxine (T₄) and morning cortisol measurement
• Serum prolactin measurement
• Serum ferritin measurement
• Pituitary magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)
• Chromosomal karyotyping

The diagnosis of central hypogonadism warrants evaluation for possible causes. These are summarized in Table 4.

Serum free thyroxine and morning cortisol

Since this patient’s LH and FSH values are abnormal, it is important to evaluate the status of other anterior pituitary hormones. In patients with pituitary abnormalities, serum free T₄ is a more reliable test for assessing thyroid function than thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH), because of loss of the negative feedback of thyroid hormones on the diseased pituitary. In contrast, serum TSH is considered the best single thyroid test to assess primary thyroid dysfunction.

Other measurements include prolactin and morning cortisol (reflecting adrenocorticotropic hormone status).

Prolactin measurement

Prolactin measurement is important to evaluate for hyperprolactinemia, as this will lead to hypogonadism by inhibition of GnRH secretion.²⁵ Different pathologic, pharmacologic, and physiologic conditions can result in hyperprolactinemia, including prolactinomas, other pituitary and hypothalamic lesions, primary hypothyroidism, and medications such as antipsychotics.²⁵ Dopamine agonists are the mainstay treatment for hyperprolactinemia.

Ferritin measurement

Ferritin measurement is indicated to diagnose iron overload conditions such as hemochromatosis, which can result in primary hypogonadism via testicular damage or in secondary hypogonadism via pituitary damage.²⁶

Pituitary MRI with contrast

Pituitary MRI with contrast is used to diagnose structural lesions of the pituitary or hypothalamus. This diagnostic modality is indicated for patients with pituitary dysfunction, including central hypogonadism, manifestations of a mass effect (headache, visual field defects), persistent hyperprolactinemia, and panhypopituitarism, among others. To improve the diagnostic yield of pituitary MRI, the Endocrine Society guidelines recommend it for men with serum total testosterone levels below 150 ng/dL.⁵ However, some clinicians have a lower threshold for ordering pituitary MRI for patients with central hypogonadism. Physician judgment and expertise should be exercised and the decision made on an individual basis.

Chromosomal karyotyping

Chromosomal karyotyping is not indicated in our patient. It is reserved for those with primary hypogonadism to diagnose Klinefelter syndrome, which has a karyotype of 47,XXY.

CASE RESUMED: MOSH SYNDROME

Our patient’s prolactin, free T₄, morning cortisol, and ferritin levels are measured, yielding normal values. No abnormalities are seen on pituitary MRI. A clinical reevaluation is conducted, revealing no history of head trauma or head and neck radiation. The lack of an obvious cause in our patient’s clinical presentation and workup, together with his obesity (BMI 32.8 kg/m²) supports the diagnosis of obesity as the cause of his hypogonadism.

Obesity can be a cause of secondary hypogonadism, which has led to the term “MOSH” (male obesity-associated secondary hypogonadism) syndrome. In fact, a cross-sectional study has demonstrated that 40% of nondiabetic obese (BMI ≥ 30 kg/m²) men over age 45 have low serum free testosterone levels, compared with 26% for lean (BMI < 25 kg/m²) men.²⁷ Moreover, obesity has been found to be a strong predictor of testosterone replacement therapy.²⁸ Other studies have also found an inverse relationship between BMI and testosterone levels.²⁹

Several mechanisms interact in the pathogenesis of MOSH syndrome. Adipose tissue possesses aromatase activity, which converts androgens into estrogens.³⁰ Peripheral estrogen production can in turn exert feedback inhibition on pituitary gonadotropin secretion.³¹ In obese men, increased adipose tissue leads to increased aromatase activity and more estrogen, so more feedback inhibition on the pituitary and subsequently secondary hypogonadism. 


Leptin, a hormone produced by adipocytes, is also increased in obesity, and was found to be inversely correlated with serum testosterone.³² Studies have demonstrated that leptin has an inhibitory effect on the enzymatic pathway that synthesizes testosterone in Leydig cells.³³

Proinflammatory cytokines have also been implicated, as central obesity is associated with an increase in these cytokines, which in turn act negatively on the hypothalamus and impair GnRH release leading to lower testosterone.^34,35

Treating obesity-related hypogonadism

In a pilot study,³⁶ lifestyle attempts to reduce obesity were shown to improve hormonal levels. Bariatric surgery has also been demonstrated to be successful.³⁷

Clomiphene citrate, a selective estrogen receptor modulator, increases endogenous testosterone secretion by inhibiting the negative feedback of estrogen on the hypothalamus and pituitary and thus increasing LH and FSH. It also preserves endogenous testosterone production, since it does not suppress the hypothalamic-pituitary-testicular axis.³⁸ This made clomiphene citrate a potential treatment for men with central hypogonadism including those with MOSH.³⁹

Nevertheless, there are no randomized trials to prove its safety and efficacy in the management of central hypogonadism.⁵ Regarding its use in men wishing to preserve fertility, most studies did not show improvement. However, a meta-analysis demonstrated statistically significant increased pregnancy rates in partners of men with idiopathic infertility if the men used 50 mg of clomiphene citrate daily.⁴⁰

Testosterone deficiency can be a marker of metabolic syndrome, which needs to be managed more urgently than hypogonadism. A cross-sectional study found not only an association between metabolic syndrome and low serum testosterone, but also with each individual component of metabolic syndrome on its own, all of which need to be addressed.¹⁰

The physician counsels the patient regarding the implications, potential adverse outcomes, and available treatments for his obesity, including lifestyle modification and bariatric surgery. The patient declines surgery and wishes to adopt a weight-reducing diet and exercise program, for which he is referred to a dietitian.

In addition, in view of the patient’s clinically and biochemically proven hypogonadism, his physician offers testosterone replacement therapy. He orders a serum prostate-specific antigen (PSA) level, which is 1.3 ng/dL (reference range < 4 ng/dL). The patient is prescribed 5 g of 1% testosterone gel daily.

TESTOSTERONE REPLACEMENT THERAPY

4. Which is the most common adverse effect of testosterone replacement therapy?

• Cardiovascular events
• Erythrocytosis
• Prostate cancer
• Infertility
• Obstructive sleep apnea

Clinicians should be very cautious in initiating testosterone replacement therapy in any patient with an unstable medical condition.

There are several formulations of testosterone replacement therapy, including intramuscular injections, transdermal gels or patches, buccal tablets, an intranasal gel, and oral tablets. Of note, there are 2 different forms of oral testosterone preparations: testosterone undecanoate and 17-alpha alkylated testosterone. The former is unavailable in the United States and the latter is not recommended for use due to its proven hepatic toxicity.⁴¹

Testosterone and erythrocytosis

Meta-analyses have concluded that the most frequent adverse event of testosterone replacement therapy is a significant rise in hematocrit.⁴² This rise was found to be dose-dependent and was more marked in older men.⁴³ Although all preparations can cause erythrocytosis, parenteral forms have been observed to raise it the most, particularly short-term injectables.^44,45

The mechanism behind this increase is attributed to increased erythropoietin levels and improved usage of iron for red blood cell synthesis.⁴⁶ In fact, testosterone replacement therapy has been shown to improve hemoglobin levels in patients with anemia.⁴⁷ On the other hand, increasing hematocrit levels may lead to thrombotic and vasoocclusive events.⁴⁴

Testosterone and prostate cancer

The relationship between testosterone treatment and prostate cancer has long been studied. Historically, testosterone replacement therapy was believed to increase the risk of prostate cancer; however, recent studies and meta-analyses have shown that this is not the case.^42,48 Nevertheless, clinical guidelines still recommend prostate monitoring for men on testosterone replacement therapy.^5,6

Testosterone and cardiovascular risk

The evidence regarding this issue has been contradictory and inconsistent. Meta-analyses have demonstrated that low testosterone is associated with higher risk of major adverse cardiovascular events.⁵⁰ These studies argue for the use of testosterone replacement therapy in hypogonadal men to decrease the risk. However, other studies and meta-analyses have found that testosterone replacement therapy is associated with increased cardiovascular risk and have concluded that major adverse cardiac events are in fact a risk of testosterone replacement therapy.⁵¹

Current recommendations advocate against the use of testosterone replacement therapy in men with uncontrolled heart failure or with cardiovascular events in the past 3 to 6 months.^5,6 Cardiovascular risk factors should be addressed and corrected, and patients should be educated on cardiovascular symptoms and the need to report them if they occur.

Testosterone and infertility

As described earlier, testosterone replacement therapy increases negative feedback on the pituitary and decreases LH and FSH production, leading to less spermatogenesis. Other treatment options should be sought for hypogonadal men wishing to preserve fertility.

Other adverse effects

Other adverse effects of testosterone replacement therapy include acne, oily skin, obstructive sleep apnea, gynecomastia, and balding.

Given all the adverse events that can be associated with testosterone replacement therapy, the risks and benefits of treating hypogonadism in each patient should be taken into consideration, and an individualized approach is required.

The patient presents 3 months later for follow-up. He reports significant improvement in his presenting symptoms including energy, libido, and erectile function. He also reports some improvement in his mood and concentration. He has lost 12 lb (5.4 kg) and is still trying to improve his diet and exercise program. He is compliant with his testosterone gel therapy.

His serum calculated free testosterone level is 7.8 ng/dL (4.5–17), and his hematocrit is 46%. The patient is instructed to continue his treatment and to return after 9 months for further follow-up.

TAKE-HOME POINTS

• Men with hypogonadism usually present with nonspecific manifestations, so clinicians should keep a high index of suspicion.
• Both clinical and biochemical evidence of hypogonadism should be present to diagnose and start treatment for it.
• Low levels of serum total testosterone do not necessarily reflect hypogonadism.
• The hormonal profile of central hypogonadism reveals low serum testosterone with low or inappropriately normal serum LH and FSH levels.

Obesity can cause central hypogonadism and should be suspected after pituitary and other systemic causes are excluded.

A 48-year-old man presents to his primary care physician because of progressively decreasing energy and gradual decline in both libido and erectile function for the past 18 months. He has noticed decreased morning erections as well. He rates his libido at 3 to 4 on a scale of 10 for the past 6 months. He also reports poor motivation, depressed mood, impaired concentration, and sleep disturbances. He reports no hair loss, headache, or dizziness, and no decrease in shaving frequency. Review of his systems is otherwise unremarkable.

He has had dyslipidemia for 3 years and is not known to have hypertension or diabetes. His medications include atorvastatin, vitamin E, and multivitamins.

He is married with 3 children and does not wish to have more. He works as a software engineer and leads a sedentary lifestyle. He is a nonsmoker and occasionally drinks alcohol on the weekends.

On physical examination, he is alert and oriented and appears well. His height is 5 feet 10 inches (178 cm), weight 230 lb (104 kg), and body mass index (BMI) 32.8 kg/m². His blood pressure is 115/83 mm Hg and pulse rate is 82 beats per minute and regular. Findings on cardiovascular and pulmonary examination are normal. He has large fatty breasts but without palpable glandular tissue.

Genitourinary examination reveals normal hair distribution, a normal-sized penis, and slightly soft testes with testicular volume of 18–20 mL bilaterally.

His primary care physician suspects that he has low testosterone and orders some basic laboratory tests; the results are normal except for a low total testosterone level (Table 1).

FURTHER TESTING

1. Which of the following tests should his physician order next?

• Repeat total testosterone measurement
• Free testosterone measurement by commercial assay
• Calculated free testosterone
• Bioavailable testosterone measurement
• Serum inhibin B measurement

This patient presents with several nonspecific symptoms. But collectively they suggest testosterone deficiency (hypogonadism).

Together, erectile dysfunction, low libido, and decreased morning erections strongly suggest hypogonadism.² Loss of body hair and decreased shaving frequency are specific symptoms of hypogonadism; however, they require years to develop.³ Gynecomastia can also occur due to loss of the inhibitory action of testosterone on breast growth and a relative increase in estradiol. This occurs more in primary hypogonadism, due to the increase in luteinizing hormone (LH), which stimulates the remaining Leydig cells to secrete estradiol rather than testosterone.⁴

To diagnose hypogonadism in men and to start treatment for it, current guidelines recommend that the patient should have clinical features as well as laboratory evidence of low testosterone.^5,6

Measuring testosterone: Total, free, bound, and bioavailable

Testosterone, a steroid hormone, circulates in the serum either as free testosterone or bound to several plasma proteins, mainly sex-hormone binding globulin (SHBG) and albumin.

Total testosterone includes both the free and bound fractions, whereas bioavailable testosterone includes both free and the portion bound to albumin, which has low affinity and can dissociate and be used at the tissue level.¹¹

Low levels of total testosterone do not necessarily reflect a hypogonadal state, as a man with altered SHBG levels or binding capabilities can have low total but normal free testosterone levels and no manifestations.¹² Several conditions can alter the levels of SHBG, including obesity, diabetes, aging, thyroid dysfunction, and others.^5,13

Because our patient is obese, his total testosterone level is not a reliable indicator of hypogonadism, and repeating its measurement will not add diagnostic value.

Therefore, an alternative measurement should be used to accurately reflect the testosterone levels. From a physiologic point of view, bioavailable testosterone is the active form of testosterone and is the most accurate to be measured in a patient with hypogonadism. Nevertheless, because of technical difficulties in its measurement and lack of evidence correlating bioavailable testosterone with the clinical picture of hypogonadism, it is recommended that the level of free testosterone be used.⁵

The gold standard for direct measurement of serum free testosterone is equilibrium dialysis, but this is expensive and time-consuming.¹⁴ Commercial assays for free testosterone exist but have been deemed unreliable.^14,15 It is recommended that free testosterone be measured by equilibrium dialysis or calculated using equations based on total testosterone, SHBG, and albumin levels.⁵ These equations are reliable and give results very close to the values obtained by equilibrium dialysis.¹⁵ Therefore, in our patient, it would be suitable to calculate the free testosterone level next.

Serum levels of free testosterone vary according to several factors. Diurnal variation of testosterone has been established: levels are highest in the morning and decline throughout the day.¹⁶ Food decreases testosterone levels.¹⁷ In addition, there is considerable day-to-day variation.¹8 Therefore, at least 2 readings of fasting morning testosterone on 2 separate days are recommended for the diagnosis of hypogonadism.⁵

Inhibin B is a hormone produced by Sertoli cells in the testes in response to follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) stimulation. In turn, it acts as negative feedback, together with testosterone, to inhibit FSH release from the pituitary. Inhibin B has been shown to reflect spermatogenesis in the testes and therefore fertility.¹⁹ Inhibin B levels were found to be low in patients with central hypogonadism, due to less FSH release; however, they did not correlate with testosterone levels.²⁰

The patient’s physician orders morning fasting total testosterone, SHBG, and albumin testing and calculates the free testosterone level, which yields a value of 3 ng/dL (reference range 4.5–17). This is confirmed by a repeat measurement, which yields a value of 2.9 ng/dL. Laboratory test results combined with his clinical presentation are consistent with hypogonadism.

2. What is the most appropriate next step?

• Measurement of serum LH and FSH
• Measurement of serum prolactin
• Scrotal ultrasonography
• Gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) stimulation test
• Semen analysis

After hypogonadism is diagnosed, it is important to distinguish if it is primary or central. This is achieved by measuring serum LH and FSH.⁵ All biotin supplements should be stopped at least 72 hours before measuring LH and FSH, as biotin can interfere with the assays, yielding false values.²¹

Secretion of FSH and LH from the anterior pituitary is under the influence of pulsatile release of GnRH from the hypothalamus. LH acts on Leydig cells in the testes to produce testosterone, whereas FSH acts on Sertoli cells, together with testosterone, to bring about spermatogenesis in the seminiferous tubules. Testosterone acts centrally as negative feedback to decrease the release of LH and FSH.

Primary hypogonadism occurs due to testicular failure, ie, the testes themselves fail to produce testosterone, leading to hypogonadism. The decrease in testosterone levels, together with inhibin B if Sertoli cells are damaged, lead to loss of negative feedback on the hypothalamus and pituitary, and therefore increased levels of LH and FSH. This is termed hypergonadotropic hypogonadism. Testicular failure may also result in impaired spermatogenesis and infertility due to destruction of testicular structures, in which case fertility cannot be restored.

Central hypogonadism occurs when the pituitary fails to produce LH and FSH (secondary hypogonadism) or when the hypothalamus fails to produce GnRH and subsequently the lack of secretion of LH and FSH from the pituitary (tertiary hypogonadism). The lack of LH will result in no stimulation of Leydig cells to produce testosterone, and therefore its deficiency. Serum hormone levels in central hypogonadism will reveal low testosterone, with either low or inappropriately normal gonadotropins (LH and FSH). This is termed hypogonadotropic hypogonadism. The lack of FSH, together with testosterone deficiency will also result in decreased spermatogenesis and therefore infertility. Testicular structures are preserved, however, and fertility can be restored with appropriate therapy, as discussed below.

Prolactin should be measured only if the patient has central hypogonadism. Its measurement is not warranted at this point in the patient’s workup. The implications of prolactin and its relationship to hypogonadism will be discussed later.

Although, this stepwise approach is not convenient for many patients, some physicians follow it because it is cost-effective, especially in those who are not insured. However, other physicians order FSH, LH, and sometimes prolactin with the confirmatory low testosterone measurement. Laboratories can also be instructed to wait to measure the pituitary hormones and to do so only if low testosterone is confirmed.

Varicocele, a possible cause of male infertility, can also impair Leydig cell function and cause low testosterone. In fact, surgical repair of varicocele has been demonstrated to increase serum testosterone.²² Scrotal ultrasonography is used to diagnose varicocele, but this also should be ordered at a later stage in the workup if primary hypogonadism is diagnosed.

The GnRH stimulation test is important for the diagnosis and evaluation of precocious or delayed puberty in children. In boys with delayed puberty, a poorer response to GnRH stimulation indicates central hypogonadism rather than constitutional delay.²³ It has no role in the evaluation of postpubertal or adult-onset hypogonadism.

Semen analysis is important to evaluate fertility if the patient is interested in further procreation.⁵ Low testosterone levels may result in impaired spermatogenesis and therefore infertility. On the other hand, treatment with exogenous testosterone will also result in infertility, by feedback inhibition of LH and FSH and therefore inhibition of spermatogenesis. If the patient wishes to preserve fertility, treatment options other than testosterone should be considered; examples include clomiphene citrate, human menopausal gonadotropin, and human chorionic gonadotropin.^23,24

Our patient has no desire to expand his family; therefore, a semen analysis and attempts to preserve spermatogenesis are not indicated.

His physician orders testing of serum LH and FSH, yielding the following values:

• LH 1.6 mIU/mL (reference range 1.8–12)
• FSH 1.9 mIU/mL (reference range 1.5–12.5).

The diagnosis of central hypogonadism is established.

3. Which investigation is the least appropriate in the further evaluation of this patient?

• 
  Serum free thyroxine (T₄) and morning cortisol measurement
• Serum prolactin measurement
• Serum ferritin measurement
• Pituitary magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)
• Chromosomal karyotyping

The diagnosis of central hypogonadism warrants evaluation for possible causes. These are summarized in Table 4.

Serum free thyroxine and morning cortisol

Since this patient’s LH and FSH values are abnormal, it is important to evaluate the status of other anterior pituitary hormones. In patients with pituitary abnormalities, serum free T₄ is a more reliable test for assessing thyroid function than thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH), because of loss of the negative feedback of thyroid hormones on the diseased pituitary. In contrast, serum TSH is considered the best single thyroid test to assess primary thyroid dysfunction.

Other measurements include prolactin and morning cortisol (reflecting adrenocorticotropic hormone status).

Prolactin measurement

Prolactin measurement is important to evaluate for hyperprolactinemia, as this will lead to hypogonadism by inhibition of GnRH secretion.²⁵ Different pathologic, pharmacologic, and physiologic conditions can result in hyperprolactinemia, including prolactinomas, other pituitary and hypothalamic lesions, primary hypothyroidism, and medications such as antipsychotics.²⁵ Dopamine agonists are the mainstay treatment for hyperprolactinemia.

Ferritin measurement

Ferritin measurement is indicated to diagnose iron overload conditions such as hemochromatosis, which can result in primary hypogonadism via testicular damage or in secondary hypogonadism via pituitary damage.²⁶

Pituitary MRI with contrast

Pituitary MRI with contrast is used to diagnose structural lesions of the pituitary or hypothalamus. This diagnostic modality is indicated for patients with pituitary dysfunction, including central hypogonadism, manifestations of a mass effect (headache, visual field defects), persistent hyperprolactinemia, and panhypopituitarism, among others. To improve the diagnostic yield of pituitary MRI, the Endocrine Society guidelines recommend it for men with serum total testosterone levels below 150 ng/dL.⁵ However, some clinicians have a lower threshold for ordering pituitary MRI for patients with central hypogonadism. Physician judgment and expertise should be exercised and the decision made on an individual basis.

Chromosomal karyotyping

Chromosomal karyotyping is not indicated in our patient. It is reserved for those with primary hypogonadism to diagnose Klinefelter syndrome, which has a karyotype of 47,XXY.

CASE RESUMED: MOSH SYNDROME

Our patient’s prolactin, free T₄, morning cortisol, and ferritin levels are measured, yielding normal values. No abnormalities are seen on pituitary MRI. A clinical reevaluation is conducted, revealing no history of head trauma or head and neck radiation. The lack of an obvious cause in our patient’s clinical presentation and workup, together with his obesity (BMI 32.8 kg/m²) supports the diagnosis of obesity as the cause of his hypogonadism.

Obesity can be a cause of secondary hypogonadism, which has led to the term “MOSH” (male obesity-associated secondary hypogonadism) syndrome. In fact, a cross-sectional study has demonstrated that 40% of nondiabetic obese (BMI ≥ 30 kg/m²) men over age 45 have low serum free testosterone levels, compared with 26% for lean (BMI < 25 kg/m²) men.²⁷ Moreover, obesity has been found to be a strong predictor of testosterone replacement therapy.²⁸ Other studies have also found an inverse relationship between BMI and testosterone levels.²⁹

Several mechanisms interact in the pathogenesis of MOSH syndrome. Adipose tissue possesses aromatase activity, which converts androgens into estrogens.³⁰ Peripheral estrogen production can in turn exert feedback inhibition on pituitary gonadotropin secretion.³¹ In obese men, increased adipose tissue leads to increased aromatase activity and more estrogen, so more feedback inhibition on the pituitary and subsequently secondary hypogonadism. 


Leptin, a hormone produced by adipocytes, is also increased in obesity, and was found to be inversely correlated with serum testosterone.³² Studies have demonstrated that leptin has an inhibitory effect on the enzymatic pathway that synthesizes testosterone in Leydig cells.³³

Proinflammatory cytokines have also been implicated, as central obesity is associated with an increase in these cytokines, which in turn act negatively on the hypothalamus and impair GnRH release leading to lower testosterone.^34,35

Treating obesity-related hypogonadism

In a pilot study,³⁶ lifestyle attempts to reduce obesity were shown to improve hormonal levels. Bariatric surgery has also been demonstrated to be successful.³⁷

Clomiphene citrate, a selective estrogen receptor modulator, increases endogenous testosterone secretion by inhibiting the negative feedback of estrogen on the hypothalamus and pituitary and thus increasing LH and FSH. It also preserves endogenous testosterone production, since it does not suppress the hypothalamic-pituitary-testicular axis.³⁸ This made clomiphene citrate a potential treatment for men with central hypogonadism including those with MOSH.³⁹

Nevertheless, there are no randomized trials to prove its safety and efficacy in the management of central hypogonadism.⁵ Regarding its use in men wishing to preserve fertility, most studies did not show improvement. However, a meta-analysis demonstrated statistically significant increased pregnancy rates in partners of men with idiopathic infertility if the men used 50 mg of clomiphene citrate daily.⁴⁰

Testosterone deficiency can be a marker of metabolic syndrome, which needs to be managed more urgently than hypogonadism. A cross-sectional study found not only an association between metabolic syndrome and low serum testosterone, but also with each individual component of metabolic syndrome on its own, all of which need to be addressed.¹⁰

The physician counsels the patient regarding the implications, potential adverse outcomes, and available treatments for his obesity, including lifestyle modification and bariatric surgery. The patient declines surgery and wishes to adopt a weight-reducing diet and exercise program, for which he is referred to a dietitian.

In addition, in view of the patient’s clinically and biochemically proven hypogonadism, his physician offers testosterone replacement therapy. He orders a serum prostate-specific antigen (PSA) level, which is 1.3 ng/dL (reference range < 4 ng/dL). The patient is prescribed 5 g of 1% testosterone gel daily.

TESTOSTERONE REPLACEMENT THERAPY

4. Which is the most common adverse effect of testosterone replacement therapy?

• Cardiovascular events
• Erythrocytosis
• Prostate cancer
• Infertility
• Obstructive sleep apnea

Clinicians should be very cautious in initiating testosterone replacement therapy in any patient with an unstable medical condition.

There are several formulations of testosterone replacement therapy, including intramuscular injections, transdermal gels or patches, buccal tablets, an intranasal gel, and oral tablets. Of note, there are 2 different forms of oral testosterone preparations: testosterone undecanoate and 17-alpha alkylated testosterone. The former is unavailable in the United States and the latter is not recommended for use due to its proven hepatic toxicity.⁴¹

Testosterone and erythrocytosis

Meta-analyses have concluded that the most frequent adverse event of testosterone replacement therapy is a significant rise in hematocrit.⁴² This rise was found to be dose-dependent and was more marked in older men.⁴³ Although all preparations can cause erythrocytosis, parenteral forms have been observed to raise it the most, particularly short-term injectables.^44,45

The mechanism behind this increase is attributed to increased erythropoietin levels and improved usage of iron for red blood cell synthesis.⁴⁶ In fact, testosterone replacement therapy has been shown to improve hemoglobin levels in patients with anemia.⁴⁷ On the other hand, increasing hematocrit levels may lead to thrombotic and vasoocclusive events.⁴⁴

Testosterone and prostate cancer

The relationship between testosterone treatment and prostate cancer has long been studied. Historically, testosterone replacement therapy was believed to increase the risk of prostate cancer; however, recent studies and meta-analyses have shown that this is not the case.^42,48 Nevertheless, clinical guidelines still recommend prostate monitoring for men on testosterone replacement therapy.^5,6

Testosterone and cardiovascular risk

The evidence regarding this issue has been contradictory and inconsistent. Meta-analyses have demonstrated that low testosterone is associated with higher risk of major adverse cardiovascular events.⁵⁰ These studies argue for the use of testosterone replacement therapy in hypogonadal men to decrease the risk. However, other studies and meta-analyses have found that testosterone replacement therapy is associated with increased cardiovascular risk and have concluded that major adverse cardiac events are in fact a risk of testosterone replacement therapy.⁵¹

Current recommendations advocate against the use of testosterone replacement therapy in men with uncontrolled heart failure or with cardiovascular events in the past 3 to 6 months.^5,6 Cardiovascular risk factors should be addressed and corrected, and patients should be educated on cardiovascular symptoms and the need to report them if they occur.

Testosterone and infertility

As described earlier, testosterone replacement therapy increases negative feedback on the pituitary and decreases LH and FSH production, leading to less spermatogenesis. Other treatment options should be sought for hypogonadal men wishing to preserve fertility.

Other adverse effects

Other adverse effects of testosterone replacement therapy include acne, oily skin, obstructive sleep apnea, gynecomastia, and balding.

Given all the adverse events that can be associated with testosterone replacement therapy, the risks and benefits of treating hypogonadism in each patient should be taken into consideration, and an individualized approach is required.

The patient presents 3 months later for follow-up. He reports significant improvement in his presenting symptoms including energy, libido, and erectile function. He also reports some improvement in his mood and concentration. He has lost 12 lb (5.4 kg) and is still trying to improve his diet and exercise program. He is compliant with his testosterone gel therapy.

His serum calculated free testosterone level is 7.8 ng/dL (4.5–17), and his hematocrit is 46%. The patient is instructed to continue his treatment and to return after 9 months for further follow-up.

TAKE-HOME POINTS

• Men with hypogonadism usually present with nonspecific manifestations, so clinicians should keep a high index of suspicion.
• Both clinical and biochemical evidence of hypogonadism should be present to diagnose and start treatment for it.
• Low levels of serum total testosterone do not necessarily reflect hypogonadism.
• The hormonal profile of central hypogonadism reveals low serum testosterone with low or inappropriately normal serum LH and FSH levels.

Obesity can cause central hypogonadism and should be suspected after pituitary and other systemic causes are excluded.

Some people, most of them relatively young women, experience lightheadedness, a racing heart, and other symptoms (but not hypotension) when they stand up, in a condition known as postural tachycardia syndrome (POTS).¹ Although not known to shorten life,¹ it can be physically and mentally debilitating.^2,3 Therapy rarely cures it, but a multifaceted approach can substantially improve quality of life.

This review outlines the evaluation and diagnosis of POTS and provides guidance for a therapy regimen.

HOW IS POTS DEFINED?

POTS is a multifactorial syndrome rather than a specific disease. It is characterized by all of the following^1,4–6:

• An increase in heart rate of ≥ 30 bpm, or ≥ 40 bpm for those under age 19, within 10 minutes of standing from a supine position
• Sustained tachycardia (> 30 seconds) 
• Absence of orthostatic hypotension (a fall in blood pressure of ≥ 20/10 mm Hg)
• Frequent and chronic duration (≥ 6 months).

These features are critical to diagnosis. Hemodynamic criteria in isolation may describe postural tachycardia but are not sufficient to diagnose POTS.

The prevalence of POTS is estimated to be between 0.2% and 1.0%,⁷ affecting up to 3 million people in the United States. Most cases arise between ages 13 and 50, with a female-to-male ratio of 5:1.⁸

MANY NAMES, SAME CONDITION

In 1871, Da Costa⁹ described a condition he called “irritable heart syndrome” that had characteristics similar to those of POTS, including extreme fatigue and exercise intolerance. Decades later, Lewis¹⁰ and Wood¹¹ provided more detailed descriptions of the disorder, renaming it “soldier’s heart” or “Da Costa syndrome.” As other cases were documented, more terms arose, including “effort syndrome” and “mitral valve prolapse syndrome.”

In 1982, Rosen and Cryer¹² were the first to use the term “postural tachycardia syndrome” for patients with disabling tachycardia upon standing without orthostatic hypotension. In 1986, Fouad et al¹³ described patients with postural tachycardia, orthostatic intolerance, and a small degree of hypotension as having “idiopathic hypovolemia.”

In 1993, Schondorf and Low¹⁴ established the current definition of POTS, leading to increased awareness and research efforts to understand its pathophysiology.

MULTIFACTORIAL PATHOPHYSIOLOGY

During the last 2 decades, several often-overlapping forms of POTS have been recognized, all of which share a final common pathway of sustained orthostatic tachycardia.^15–19 In addition, a number of common comorbidities were identified through review of large clinic populations of POTS.^20,21

Hypovolemic POTS

Up to 70% of patients with POTS have hypovolemia. The average plasma volume deficit is about 13%, which typically causes only insignificant changes in heart rate and norepinephrine levels while a patient is supine. However, blood pooling associated with upright posture further compromises cardiac output and consequently increases sympathetic nerve activity. Abnormalities in the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone volume regulation system are also suspected to impair sodium retention, contributing to hypovolemia.^1,22

Neuropathic POTS

About half of patients with POTS have partial sympathetic denervation (particularly in the lower limbs) and inadequate vasoconstriction upon standing, leading to reduced venous return and stroke volume.^17,23 A compensatory increase in sympathetic tone results in tachycardia to maintain cardiac output and blood pressure.

Hyperadrenergic POTS

Up to 50% of patients with POTS have high norepinephrine levels (≥ 600 pg/mL) when upright. This subtype, hyperadrenergic POTS, is characterized by an increase in systolic blood pressure of at least 10 mm Hg within 10 minutes of standing, with concomitant tachycardia that can be similar to or greater than that seen in nonhyperadrenergic POTS. Patients with hyperadrenergic POTS tend to report more prominent symptoms of sympathetic activation, such as palpitations, anxiety, and tremulousness.^24,25

Norepinephrine transporter deficiency

The norepinephrine transporter (NET) is on the presynaptic cleft of sympathetic neurons and serves to clear synaptic norepinephrine. NET deficiency leads to a hyperadrenergic state and elevated sympathetic nerve activation.¹⁸ NET deficiency may be induced by common antidepressants (eg, tricyclic antidepressants and serotonin-norepinephrine reuptake inhibitors) and attention-deficit disorder medications.⁴

Mast cell activation syndrome

The relationship between mast cell activation syndrome and POTS is poorly understood.^4,26 Mast cell activation syndrome has been described in a subset of patients with POTS who have sinus tachycardia accompanied by severe episodic flushing. Patients with this subtype have a hyperadrenergic response to postural change and elevated urine methylhistamine during flushing episodes.

Patients with mast cell activation syndrome tend to have strong allergic symptoms and may also have severe gastrointestinal problems, food sensitivities, dermatographism, and neuropathy. Diagnosis can be difficult, as the condition is associated with numerous markers with varying sensitivity and specificity.

Autoimmune origin

A significant minority of patients report a viral-like illness before the onset of POTS symptoms, suggesting a possible autoimmune-mediated or inflammatory cause. Also, some autoimmune disorders (eg, Sjögren syndrome) can present with a POTS-like manifestation.

Research into the role of autoantibodies in the pathophysiology of POTS offers the potential to develop novel therapeutic targets. Auto­antibodies that have been reported in POTS include those against M1 to M3 muscarinic receptors (present in over 87% of patients with POTS),²⁷ cardiac lipid raft-associated proteins,²⁸ adrenergic G-protein coupled receptors, alpha-1-adrenergic receptors, and beta-1- and beta-2-adrenergic receptors.²⁹ Although commercial enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays can assess for these antibody fragments, it is not known whether targeting the antibodies improves outcomes. At this time, antibody testing for POTS should be confined to the research setting.

LINKS TO OTHER SYNDROMES

POTS is often associated with other conditions whose symptoms cannot be explained by postural intolerance or tachycardia.

Ehlers-Danlos syndromes are a group of inherited heterogeneous disorders involving joint hypermobility, skin hyperextensibility, and tissue fragility.³⁰ The hypermobile subtype is most commonly associated with POTS, with patients often having symptoms of autonomic dysregulation and autonomic test abnormalities.^31–33 Patients with POTS may have a history of joint subluxations, joint pain, cervical instability, and spontaneous epidural leaks. The reason for the overlap between the two syndromes is not clear.

Chronic fatigue syndrome is characterized by persistent fatigue that does not resolve with rest and is not necessarily associated with orthostatic changes. More than 75% of patients with POTS report general fatigue as a major complaint, and up to 23% meet the full criteria for chronic fatigue syndrome.³⁴

A patient presenting with symptoms suggestive of POTS should first undergo a detailed history and physical examination. Other causes of sinus tachycardia should be considered. 

Detailed history, symptom review

The history should focus on determining symptom burden, including tachycardia onset, frequency, severity, and triggers; the presence of syncope; and the impact of symptoms on daily function and quality of life.

Presyncope and its associated symptoms occur in less than one-third of patients with POTS, and syncope is not a principal feature.⁴ If syncope is the predominant complaint, alternative causes should be investigated. The usual cause of syncope in the general population is thought to be vasovagal.

In addition to orthostatic intolerance, gastrointestinal disturbances are common in POTS, presenting as abdominal pain, heartburn, irregular bowel movements, diarrhea, or constipation. Symptoms of gastroparesis are less common. Gastrointestinal symptoms tend to be prolonged, lasting hours and occurring multiple times a week. They tend not to improve in the supine position.³⁵ 

POTS-associated symptoms may develop insidiously, but patients often report onset after an acute stressor such as pregnancy, major surgery, or a presumed viral illness.⁴ Whether these putative triggers are causative or coincidental is unknown. Symptoms of orthostatic intolerance tend to be exacerbated by dehydration, heat, alcohol, exercise, and menstruation.^36,37

Consider the family history: 1 in 8 patients with POTS reports familial orthostatic intolerance,³⁸ suggesting a genetic role in some patients. Inquire about symptoms or a previous diagnosis of Ehlers-Danlos syndrome and mast cell activation syndrome.

Consider other conditions

Pheochromocytoma causes hyperadrenergic symptoms (eg, palpitations, lightheadedness) like those in POTS, but patients with pheochromocytoma typically have these symptoms while supine. Pheochromocytoma is also characterized by plasma norepinephrine levels much higher than in POTS.⁴ Plasma metanephrine testing helps diagnose or rule out pheochromocytoma.⁵

Inappropriate sinus tachycardia, like pheochromocytoma, also has clinical features similar to those of POTS, as well as tachycardia present when supine. It involves higher sympathetic tone and lower parasympathetic tone compared with POTS; patients commonly have a daytime resting heart rate of at least 100 bpm or a 24-hour mean heart rate of at least 90 bpm.^1,42 While the intrinsic heart rate is heightened in inappropriate sinus tachycardia, it is not different between POTS patients and healthy individuals.^42,43 Distinguishing POTS from inappropriate sinus tachycardia is further complicated by the broad inclusion criteria of most studies of inappropriate sinus tachycardia, which failed to exclude patients with POTS.⁴⁴ The Heart Rhythm Society recently adopted distinct definitions for the 2 conditions.¹

Physical examination: Focus on vital signs

Dependent acrocyanosis—dark red-blue discoloration of the lower legs that is cold to the touch—occurs in about half of patients with POTS upon standing.⁴ Dependent acrocyanosis is associated with joint hypermobility and Ehlers-Danlos syndrome, so these conditions should also be considered if findings are positive.

Laboratory testing for other causes

Laboratory testing is used mainly to detect primary causes of sinus tachycardia. Tests should include:

• Complete blood cell count with hematocrit (for severe anemia)
• Thyroid-stimulating hormone level (for hyperthyroidism)
• Electrolyte panel (for significant electrolyte disturbances).

Evidence is insufficient to support routinely measuring the vitamin B₁₂ level, iron indices, and serum markers for celiac disease, although these may be done if the history or physical examination suggests related problems.⁴ Sicca symptoms (severe dry eye or dry mouth) should trigger evaluation for Sjögren syndrome.

Electrocardiography needed

Electrocardiography should be performed to investigate for cardiac conduction abnormalities as well as for resting markers of a supraventricular tachyarrhythmia. Extended ambulatory (Holter) monitoring may be useful to evaluate for a transient reentrant tachyarrhythmia⁴; however, it does not record body position, so it can be difficult to determine if detected episodes of tachycardia are related to posture.

Additional testing for select cases

Further investigation is usually not needed to diagnose POTS but should be considered in some cases. Advanced tests are typically performed at a tertiary care referral center and include: 


• Quantitative sensory testing to evaluate for small-fiber neuropathy (ie, Quantitative Sudomotor Axon Reflex Test, or QSART), which occurs in the neuropathic POTS subtype
• Formal autonomic function testing to characterize neurovascular responsiveness  
• Supine and standing plasma norepinephrine levels (fractionated catecholamines) to characterize the net activation of the sympathetic nervous system
• Blood volume assessments to assess hypovolemia 
• Formal exercise testing to objectively quantify exercise capacity.

No single universal gold-standard therapy exists for POTS, and management should be individually determined with the primary goals of treating symptoms and restoring function. A graded approach should be used, starting with conservative nonpharmacologic therapies and adding medications as needed.

While the disease course varies substantially from patient to patient, proper management is strongly associated with eventual symptom improvement.¹

NONPHARMACOLOGIC STEPS FIRST

Education

Patients should be informed of the nature of their condition and referred to appropriate healthcare personnel. POTS is a chronic illness requiring individualized coping strategies, intensive physician interaction, and support of a multidisciplinary team. Patients and family members can be reassured that most symptoms improve over time with appropriate diagnosis and treatment.¹ Patients should be advised to avoid aggravating triggers and activities.

Exercise

Exercise programs are encouraged but should be introduced gradually, as physical activity can exacerbate symptoms, especially at the outset. Several studies have reported benefits from a short-term (3-month) program, in which the patient gradually progresses from non-upright exercise (eg, rowing machine, recumbent cycle, swimming) to upright endurance exercises. At the end of these programs, significant cardiac remodeling, improved quality of life, and reduced heart rate responses to standing have been reported, and benefits have been reported to persist in patients who continued exercising after the 3-month study period.^46,47

Despite the benefits of exercise interventions, compliance is low.^46,47 To prevent early discouragement, patients should be advised that it can take 4 to 6 weeks of continued exercise before benefits appear. Patients are encouraged to exercise every other day for 30 minutes or more. Regimens should primarily focus on aerobic conditioning, but resistance training, concentrating on thigh muscles, can also help. Exercise is a treatment and not a cure, and benefits can rapidly disappear if regular activity (at least 3 times per week) is stopped.⁴⁸

Compression stockings

Compression stockings help reduce peripheral venous pooling and enhance venous return to the heart. Waist-high stockings with compression of at least 30 to 40 mm Hg offer the best results. 

Diet

Increased fluid and salt intake is advisable for patients with suspected hypovolemia. At least 2 to 3 L of water accompanied by 10 to 12 g of daily sodium intake is recommended.¹ This can usually be accomplished with diet and salt added to food, but salt tablets can be used if the patient prefers. The resultant plasma volume expansion may help reduce the reflex tachycardia upon standing.⁴⁹

Check medications

Rescue therapy with saline infusion

Intravenous saline infusion can augment blood volume in patients who are clinically decompensated and present with severe symptoms.¹ Intermittent infusion of 1 L of normal saline has been found to significantly reduce orthostatic tachycardia and related symptoms in patients with POTS, contributing to improved quality of life.^51,52

Chronic saline infusions are not recommended for long-term care because of the risk of access complications and infection.¹ Moak et al⁵³ reported a high rate of bacteremia in a cohort of children with POTS with regular saline infusions, most of whom had a central line. On the other hand, Ruzieh et al⁵⁴ reported significantly improved symptoms with regular saline infusions without a high rate of complications, but patients in this study received infusions for only a few months and through a peripheral intravenous catheter.

DRUG THERAPY

No medications are approved by the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) or Health Canada specifically for treating POTS, making all pharmacologic recommendations off-label. Although the drugs discussed below have been evaluated for POTS in controlled laboratory settings, they have yet to be tested in robust clinical trials.

Blood volume expansion

Several drugs expand blood volume, which may reduce orthostatic tachycardia.

Fludrocortisone is a synthetic aldosterone analogue that enhances sodium and water retention. Although one observational study found that it normalizes hemodynamic changes in response to orthostatic stress, no high-level evidence exists for its effectiveness for POTS.⁵⁵ It is generally well tolerated, although possible adverse effects include hyperkalemia, hypertension, fatigue, nausea, headache, and edema.^5,56

Desmopressin is a synthetic version of a natural antidiuretic hormone that increases kidney-mediated free-water reabsorption without sodium retention. It significantly reduces upright heart rate in patients with POTS and improves symptom burden. Although potential adverse effects include edema and headache, hyponatremia is the primary concern with daily use, especially with the increased water intake advised for POTS.⁵⁷ Patients should be advised to use desmopressin no more than once a week for the acute improvement of symptoms. Intermittent monitoring of serum sodium levels is recommended for safety.

Erythropoietin replacement has been suggested for treating POTS to address the significant deficit in red blood cell volume. Although erythropoietin therapy has a direct vasoconstrictive effect and largely improves red blood cell volume in patients with POTS, it does not expand plasma volume, so orthostatic tachycardia is not itself reduced.²² Nevertheless, it may significantly improve POTS symptoms refractory to more common methods of treatment, and it should be reserved for such cases. In addition to the lack of effect on orthostatic tachycardia, drawbacks to using erythropoietin include its high cost, the need for subcutaneous administration, and the risk of life-threatening complications such as myocardial infarction and stroke.^58,59

Heart rate-lowering agents

Propranolol, a nonselective beta-adrenergic antagonist, can significantly reduce standing heart rate and improve symptoms at low dosages (10–20 mg). Higher dosages can further restrain orthostatic tachycardia but are not as well tolerated, mainly due to hypotension and worsening of existing symptoms such as fatigue.⁶⁰ Regular-acting propranolol works for about 4 to 5 hours per dose, so full-day coverage often requires dosing 4 times per day.

Ivabradine is a selective blocker of the  “funny” (I_f) channel that reduces the sinus node firing rate without affecting blood pressure, so it slows heart rate without causing supine hypertension or orthostatic hypotension.

A retrospective case series found that 60% of patients with POTS treated with ivabradine reported symptomatic improvement, and all patients experienced reduced tachycardia with continued use.⁶¹ Ivabradine has not been compared with placebo or propranolol in a randomized controlled trial, and it has not been well studied in pregnancy and so should be avoided because of potential teratogenic effects.

When prescribing ivabradine for women of childbearing age, a negative pregnancy test may be documented prior to initiation of therapy, and the use of highly effective methods of contraception is recommended. Ivabradine should be avoided in women contemplating pregnancy. Insurance coverage can limit access to ivabradine in the United States.

Central nervous system sympatholytics

Patients with prominent hyperadrenergic features may benefit from central sympatholytic agents. However, these drugs may not be well tolerated in patients with neuropathic POTS because of the effects of reduced systemic vascular resistance⁵ and the possible exacerbation of drowsiness, fatigue, and mental clouding.⁴ Patients can be extremely sensitive to these medications, so they should initially be prescribed at the lowest dose, then gradually increased as tolerated.

Clonidine, an alpha-2-adrenergic agonist, decreases central sympathetic tone. In hyperadrenergic patients, clonidine can stabilize heart rate and blood pressure, thereby reducing orthostatic symptoms.⁶²

Methyldopa has effects similar to those of clonidine but is easier to titrate owing to its longer half-life.⁶³ Methyldopa is typically started at 125 mg at bedtime and increased to 125 mg twice daily, if tolerated.             

Midodrine is a prodrug. The active form, an alpha-1-adrenergic agonist, constricts peripheral veins and arteries to increase vascular resistance and venous return, thereby reducing orthostatic tachycardia.⁵² It is most useful in patients with impaired peripheral vasoconstriction (eg, neuropathic POTS) and may be less effective in those with hyperadrenergic POTS.⁶⁴ Major limitations of midodrine include worsening supine hypertension and possible urinary retention.³⁹

Because of midodrine’s short half-life, frequent dosing is required during daytime hours (eg, 8 AM, noon, and 4 PM), but it should not be taken within 4 to 5 hours of sleep because of the risk of supine hypertension. Midodrine is typically started at 2.5 to 5 mg per dose and can be titrated up to 15 mg per dose.

Midodrine is an FDA pregnancy category  C drug (adverse effects in pregnancy seen in animal models, but evidence lacking in humans). While ideally it should be avoided, we have used it safely in pregnant women with disabling POTS symptoms.

Pyridostigmine, an acetylcholinesterase inhibitor, increases cardiovagal tone and possibly sympathetic tone. It has been reported to significantly reduce standing heart rate and improve symptom burden in patients with POTS.⁶⁵ However, pyridostigmine increases gastrointestinal mobility, leading to severe adverse effects in over 20% of patients, including abdominal cramps, nausea, and diarrhea.⁶⁶

Droxidopa, a synthetic amino acid precursor of norepinephrine, improves dizziness and fatigue in POTS with minimal effects on blood pressure.⁶⁷

Modafinil, a psychostimulant, may improve POTS-associated cognitive symptoms.⁴ It also raises upright blood pressure without significantly worsening standing heart rate or acute orthostatic symptoms.⁶⁸

EFFECTS OF COMORBID DISORDERS ON MANAGEMENT

Ehlers-Danlos syndrome

Pharmacologic approaches to POTS should not be altered based on the presence of Ehlers-Danlos syndrome, but because many of these patients are prone to joint dislocation, exercise prescriptions may need adjusting.

A medical genetics consult is recommended for patients with Ehlers-Danlos syndrome. Although the hypermobile type (the form most commonly associated with POTS) is not associated with aortopathy, it can be confused with classical and vascular Ehlers-Danlos syndromes, which require serial aortic screening.³⁰

Mast cell activation syndrome

Consultation with an allergist or immunologist may help patients with severe symptoms.

Autoantibodies and autoimmunity

Treatment of the underlying disorder is recommended and can result in significantly improved POTS symptoms.

SPECIALTY CARE REFERRAL

POTS can be challenging to manage. Given the range of physiologic, emotional, and functional distress patients experience, it often requires significant physician time and multidisciplinary care. Patients with continued severe or debilitating symptoms may benefit from referral to a tertiary-care center with experience in autonomic nervous system disorders.

PROGNOSIS

Limited data are available on the long-term prognosis of POTS, and more studies are needed in pediatric and adult populations. No deaths have been reported in the handful of published cases of POTS in patients older than 50.¹ Some pediatric studies suggest that some teenagers “outgrow” their POTS. However, these data are not robust, and an alternative explanation is that as they get older, they see adult physicians for their POTS symptoms and so are lost to study follow-up.^6,44,69 

We have not often seen POTS simply resolve without ongoing treatment. However, in our experience, most patients have improved symptoms and function with multimodal treatment (ie, exercise, salt, water, stockings, and some medications) and time.

Some people, most of them relatively young women, experience lightheadedness, a racing heart, and other symptoms (but not hypotension) when they stand up, in a condition known as postural tachycardia syndrome (POTS).¹ Although not known to shorten life,¹ it can be physically and mentally debilitating.^2,3 Therapy rarely cures it, but a multifaceted approach can substantially improve quality of life.

This review outlines the evaluation and diagnosis of POTS and provides guidance for a therapy regimen.

HOW IS POTS DEFINED?

POTS is a multifactorial syndrome rather than a specific disease. It is characterized by all of the following^1,4–6:

• An increase in heart rate of ≥ 30 bpm, or ≥ 40 bpm for those under age 19, within 10 minutes of standing from a supine position
• Sustained tachycardia (> 30 seconds) 
• Absence of orthostatic hypotension (a fall in blood pressure of ≥ 20/10 mm Hg)
• Frequent and chronic duration (≥ 6 months).

These features are critical to diagnosis. Hemodynamic criteria in isolation may describe postural tachycardia but are not sufficient to diagnose POTS.

The prevalence of POTS is estimated to be between 0.2% and 1.0%,⁷ affecting up to 3 million people in the United States. Most cases arise between ages 13 and 50, with a female-to-male ratio of 5:1.⁸

MANY NAMES, SAME CONDITION

In 1871, Da Costa⁹ described a condition he called “irritable heart syndrome” that had characteristics similar to those of POTS, including extreme fatigue and exercise intolerance. Decades later, Lewis¹⁰ and Wood¹¹ provided more detailed descriptions of the disorder, renaming it “soldier’s heart” or “Da Costa syndrome.” As other cases were documented, more terms arose, including “effort syndrome” and “mitral valve prolapse syndrome.”

In 1982, Rosen and Cryer¹² were the first to use the term “postural tachycardia syndrome” for patients with disabling tachycardia upon standing without orthostatic hypotension. In 1986, Fouad et al¹³ described patients with postural tachycardia, orthostatic intolerance, and a small degree of hypotension as having “idiopathic hypovolemia.”

In 1993, Schondorf and Low¹⁴ established the current definition of POTS, leading to increased awareness and research efforts to understand its pathophysiology.

MULTIFACTORIAL PATHOPHYSIOLOGY

During the last 2 decades, several often-overlapping forms of POTS have been recognized, all of which share a final common pathway of sustained orthostatic tachycardia.^15–19 In addition, a number of common comorbidities were identified through review of large clinic populations of POTS.^20,21

Hypovolemic POTS

Up to 70% of patients with POTS have hypovolemia. The average plasma volume deficit is about 13%, which typically causes only insignificant changes in heart rate and norepinephrine levels while a patient is supine. However, blood pooling associated with upright posture further compromises cardiac output and consequently increases sympathetic nerve activity. Abnormalities in the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone volume regulation system are also suspected to impair sodium retention, contributing to hypovolemia.^1,22

Neuropathic POTS

About half of patients with POTS have partial sympathetic denervation (particularly in the lower limbs) and inadequate vasoconstriction upon standing, leading to reduced venous return and stroke volume.^17,23 A compensatory increase in sympathetic tone results in tachycardia to maintain cardiac output and blood pressure.

Hyperadrenergic POTS

Up to 50% of patients with POTS have high norepinephrine levels (≥ 600 pg/mL) when upright. This subtype, hyperadrenergic POTS, is characterized by an increase in systolic blood pressure of at least 10 mm Hg within 10 minutes of standing, with concomitant tachycardia that can be similar to or greater than that seen in nonhyperadrenergic POTS. Patients with hyperadrenergic POTS tend to report more prominent symptoms of sympathetic activation, such as palpitations, anxiety, and tremulousness.^24,25

Norepinephrine transporter deficiency

The norepinephrine transporter (NET) is on the presynaptic cleft of sympathetic neurons and serves to clear synaptic norepinephrine. NET deficiency leads to a hyperadrenergic state and elevated sympathetic nerve activation.¹⁸ NET deficiency may be induced by common antidepressants (eg, tricyclic antidepressants and serotonin-norepinephrine reuptake inhibitors) and attention-deficit disorder medications.⁴

Mast cell activation syndrome

The relationship between mast cell activation syndrome and POTS is poorly understood.^4,26 Mast cell activation syndrome has been described in a subset of patients with POTS who have sinus tachycardia accompanied by severe episodic flushing. Patients with this subtype have a hyperadrenergic response to postural change and elevated urine methylhistamine during flushing episodes.

Patients with mast cell activation syndrome tend to have strong allergic symptoms and may also have severe gastrointestinal problems, food sensitivities, dermatographism, and neuropathy. Diagnosis can be difficult, as the condition is associated with numerous markers with varying sensitivity and specificity.

Autoimmune origin

A significant minority of patients report a viral-like illness before the onset of POTS symptoms, suggesting a possible autoimmune-mediated or inflammatory cause. Also, some autoimmune disorders (eg, Sjögren syndrome) can present with a POTS-like manifestation.

Research into the role of autoantibodies in the pathophysiology of POTS offers the potential to develop novel therapeutic targets. Auto­antibodies that have been reported in POTS include those against M1 to M3 muscarinic receptors (present in over 87% of patients with POTS),²⁷ cardiac lipid raft-associated proteins,²⁸ adrenergic G-protein coupled receptors, alpha-1-adrenergic receptors, and beta-1- and beta-2-adrenergic receptors.²⁹ Although commercial enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays can assess for these antibody fragments, it is not known whether targeting the antibodies improves outcomes. At this time, antibody testing for POTS should be confined to the research setting.

LINKS TO OTHER SYNDROMES

POTS is often associated with other conditions whose symptoms cannot be explained by postural intolerance or tachycardia.

Ehlers-Danlos syndromes are a group of inherited heterogeneous disorders involving joint hypermobility, skin hyperextensibility, and tissue fragility.³⁰ The hypermobile subtype is most commonly associated with POTS, with patients often having symptoms of autonomic dysregulation and autonomic test abnormalities.^31–33 Patients with POTS may have a history of joint subluxations, joint pain, cervical instability, and spontaneous epidural leaks. The reason for the overlap between the two syndromes is not clear.

Chronic fatigue syndrome is characterized by persistent fatigue that does not resolve with rest and is not necessarily associated with orthostatic changes. More than 75% of patients with POTS report general fatigue as a major complaint, and up to 23% meet the full criteria for chronic fatigue syndrome.³⁴

A patient presenting with symptoms suggestive of POTS should first undergo a detailed history and physical examination. Other causes of sinus tachycardia should be considered. 

Detailed history, symptom review

The history should focus on determining symptom burden, including tachycardia onset, frequency, severity, and triggers; the presence of syncope; and the impact of symptoms on daily function and quality of life.

Presyncope and its associated symptoms occur in less than one-third of patients with POTS, and syncope is not a principal feature.⁴ If syncope is the predominant complaint, alternative causes should be investigated. The usual cause of syncope in the general population is thought to be vasovagal.

In addition to orthostatic intolerance, gastrointestinal disturbances are common in POTS, presenting as abdominal pain, heartburn, irregular bowel movements, diarrhea, or constipation. Symptoms of gastroparesis are less common. Gastrointestinal symptoms tend to be prolonged, lasting hours and occurring multiple times a week. They tend not to improve in the supine position.³⁵ 

POTS-associated symptoms may develop insidiously, but patients often report onset after an acute stressor such as pregnancy, major surgery, or a presumed viral illness.⁴ Whether these putative triggers are causative or coincidental is unknown. Symptoms of orthostatic intolerance tend to be exacerbated by dehydration, heat, alcohol, exercise, and menstruation.^36,37

Consider the family history: 1 in 8 patients with POTS reports familial orthostatic intolerance,³⁸ suggesting a genetic role in some patients. Inquire about symptoms or a previous diagnosis of Ehlers-Danlos syndrome and mast cell activation syndrome.

Consider other conditions

Pheochromocytoma causes hyperadrenergic symptoms (eg, palpitations, lightheadedness) like those in POTS, but patients with pheochromocytoma typically have these symptoms while supine. Pheochromocytoma is also characterized by plasma norepinephrine levels much higher than in POTS.⁴ Plasma metanephrine testing helps diagnose or rule out pheochromocytoma.⁵

Inappropriate sinus tachycardia, like pheochromocytoma, also has clinical features similar to those of POTS, as well as tachycardia present when supine. It involves higher sympathetic tone and lower parasympathetic tone compared with POTS; patients commonly have a daytime resting heart rate of at least 100 bpm or a 24-hour mean heart rate of at least 90 bpm.^1,42 While the intrinsic heart rate is heightened in inappropriate sinus tachycardia, it is not different between POTS patients and healthy individuals.^42,43 Distinguishing POTS from inappropriate sinus tachycardia is further complicated by the broad inclusion criteria of most studies of inappropriate sinus tachycardia, which failed to exclude patients with POTS.⁴⁴ The Heart Rhythm Society recently adopted distinct definitions for the 2 conditions.¹

Physical examination: Focus on vital signs

Dependent acrocyanosis—dark red-blue discoloration of the lower legs that is cold to the touch—occurs in about half of patients with POTS upon standing.⁴ Dependent acrocyanosis is associated with joint hypermobility and Ehlers-Danlos syndrome, so these conditions should also be considered if findings are positive.

Laboratory testing for other causes

Laboratory testing is used mainly to detect primary causes of sinus tachycardia. Tests should include:

• Complete blood cell count with hematocrit (for severe anemia)
• Thyroid-stimulating hormone level (for hyperthyroidism)
• Electrolyte panel (for significant electrolyte disturbances).

Evidence is insufficient to support routinely measuring the vitamin B₁₂ level, iron indices, and serum markers for celiac disease, although these may be done if the history or physical examination suggests related problems.⁴ Sicca symptoms (severe dry eye or dry mouth) should trigger evaluation for Sjögren syndrome.

Electrocardiography needed

Electrocardiography should be performed to investigate for cardiac conduction abnormalities as well as for resting markers of a supraventricular tachyarrhythmia. Extended ambulatory (Holter) monitoring may be useful to evaluate for a transient reentrant tachyarrhythmia⁴; however, it does not record body position, so it can be difficult to determine if detected episodes of tachycardia are related to posture.

Additional testing for select cases

Further investigation is usually not needed to diagnose POTS but should be considered in some cases. Advanced tests are typically performed at a tertiary care referral center and include: 


• Quantitative sensory testing to evaluate for small-fiber neuropathy (ie, Quantitative Sudomotor Axon Reflex Test, or QSART), which occurs in the neuropathic POTS subtype
• Formal autonomic function testing to characterize neurovascular responsiveness  
• Supine and standing plasma norepinephrine levels (fractionated catecholamines) to characterize the net activation of the sympathetic nervous system
• Blood volume assessments to assess hypovolemia 
• Formal exercise testing to objectively quantify exercise capacity.

No single universal gold-standard therapy exists for POTS, and management should be individually determined with the primary goals of treating symptoms and restoring function. A graded approach should be used, starting with conservative nonpharmacologic therapies and adding medications as needed.

While the disease course varies substantially from patient to patient, proper management is strongly associated with eventual symptom improvement.¹

NONPHARMACOLOGIC STEPS FIRST

Education

Patients should be informed of the nature of their condition and referred to appropriate healthcare personnel. POTS is a chronic illness requiring individualized coping strategies, intensive physician interaction, and support of a multidisciplinary team. Patients and family members can be reassured that most symptoms improve over time with appropriate diagnosis and treatment.¹ Patients should be advised to avoid aggravating triggers and activities.

Exercise

Exercise programs are encouraged but should be introduced gradually, as physical activity can exacerbate symptoms, especially at the outset. Several studies have reported benefits from a short-term (3-month) program, in which the patient gradually progresses from non-upright exercise (eg, rowing machine, recumbent cycle, swimming) to upright endurance exercises. At the end of these programs, significant cardiac remodeling, improved quality of life, and reduced heart rate responses to standing have been reported, and benefits have been reported to persist in patients who continued exercising after the 3-month study period.^46,47

Despite the benefits of exercise interventions, compliance is low.^46,47 To prevent early discouragement, patients should be advised that it can take 4 to 6 weeks of continued exercise before benefits appear. Patients are encouraged to exercise every other day for 30 minutes or more. Regimens should primarily focus on aerobic conditioning, but resistance training, concentrating on thigh muscles, can also help. Exercise is a treatment and not a cure, and benefits can rapidly disappear if regular activity (at least 3 times per week) is stopped.⁴⁸

Compression stockings

Compression stockings help reduce peripheral venous pooling and enhance venous return to the heart. Waist-high stockings with compression of at least 30 to 40 mm Hg offer the best results. 

Diet

Increased fluid and salt intake is advisable for patients with suspected hypovolemia. At least 2 to 3 L of water accompanied by 10 to 12 g of daily sodium intake is recommended.¹ This can usually be accomplished with diet and salt added to food, but salt tablets can be used if the patient prefers. The resultant plasma volume expansion may help reduce the reflex tachycardia upon standing.⁴⁹

Check medications

Rescue therapy with saline infusion

Intravenous saline infusion can augment blood volume in patients who are clinically decompensated and present with severe symptoms.¹ Intermittent infusion of 1 L of normal saline has been found to significantly reduce orthostatic tachycardia and related symptoms in patients with POTS, contributing to improved quality of life.^51,52

Chronic saline infusions are not recommended for long-term care because of the risk of access complications and infection.¹ Moak et al⁵³ reported a high rate of bacteremia in a cohort of children with POTS with regular saline infusions, most of whom had a central line. On the other hand, Ruzieh et al⁵⁴ reported significantly improved symptoms with regular saline infusions without a high rate of complications, but patients in this study received infusions for only a few months and through a peripheral intravenous catheter.

DRUG THERAPY

No medications are approved by the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) or Health Canada specifically for treating POTS, making all pharmacologic recommendations off-label. Although the drugs discussed below have been evaluated for POTS in controlled laboratory settings, they have yet to be tested in robust clinical trials.

Blood volume expansion

Several drugs expand blood volume, which may reduce orthostatic tachycardia.

Fludrocortisone is a synthetic aldosterone analogue that enhances sodium and water retention. Although one observational study found that it normalizes hemodynamic changes in response to orthostatic stress, no high-level evidence exists for its effectiveness for POTS.⁵⁵ It is generally well tolerated, although possible adverse effects include hyperkalemia, hypertension, fatigue, nausea, headache, and edema.^5,56

Desmopressin is a synthetic version of a natural antidiuretic hormone that increases kidney-mediated free-water reabsorption without sodium retention. It significantly reduces upright heart rate in patients with POTS and improves symptom burden. Although potential adverse effects include edema and headache, hyponatremia is the primary concern with daily use, especially with the increased water intake advised for POTS.⁵⁷ Patients should be advised to use desmopressin no more than once a week for the acute improvement of symptoms. Intermittent monitoring of serum sodium levels is recommended for safety.

Erythropoietin replacement has been suggested for treating POTS to address the significant deficit in red blood cell volume. Although erythropoietin therapy has a direct vasoconstrictive effect and largely improves red blood cell volume in patients with POTS, it does not expand plasma volume, so orthostatic tachycardia is not itself reduced.²² Nevertheless, it may significantly improve POTS symptoms refractory to more common methods of treatment, and it should be reserved for such cases. In addition to the lack of effect on orthostatic tachycardia, drawbacks to using erythropoietin include its high cost, the need for subcutaneous administration, and the risk of life-threatening complications such as myocardial infarction and stroke.^58,59

Heart rate-lowering agents

Propranolol, a nonselective beta-adrenergic antagonist, can significantly reduce standing heart rate and improve symptoms at low dosages (10–20 mg). Higher dosages can further restrain orthostatic tachycardia but are not as well tolerated, mainly due to hypotension and worsening of existing symptoms such as fatigue.⁶⁰ Regular-acting propranolol works for about 4 to 5 hours per dose, so full-day coverage often requires dosing 4 times per day.

Ivabradine is a selective blocker of the  “funny” (I_f) channel that reduces the sinus node firing rate without affecting blood pressure, so it slows heart rate without causing supine hypertension or orthostatic hypotension.

A retrospective case series found that 60% of patients with POTS treated with ivabradine reported symptomatic improvement, and all patients experienced reduced tachycardia with continued use.⁶¹ Ivabradine has not been compared with placebo or propranolol in a randomized controlled trial, and it has not been well studied in pregnancy and so should be avoided because of potential teratogenic effects.

When prescribing ivabradine for women of childbearing age, a negative pregnancy test may be documented prior to initiation of therapy, and the use of highly effective methods of contraception is recommended. Ivabradine should be avoided in women contemplating pregnancy. Insurance coverage can limit access to ivabradine in the United States.

Central nervous system sympatholytics

Patients with prominent hyperadrenergic features may benefit from central sympatholytic agents. However, these drugs may not be well tolerated in patients with neuropathic POTS because of the effects of reduced systemic vascular resistance⁵ and the possible exacerbation of drowsiness, fatigue, and mental clouding.⁴ Patients can be extremely sensitive to these medications, so they should initially be prescribed at the lowest dose, then gradually increased as tolerated.

Clonidine, an alpha-2-adrenergic agonist, decreases central sympathetic tone. In hyperadrenergic patients, clonidine can stabilize heart rate and blood pressure, thereby reducing orthostatic symptoms.⁶²

Methyldopa has effects similar to those of clonidine but is easier to titrate owing to its longer half-life.⁶³ Methyldopa is typically started at 125 mg at bedtime and increased to 125 mg twice daily, if tolerated.             

Midodrine is a prodrug. The active form, an alpha-1-adrenergic agonist, constricts peripheral veins and arteries to increase vascular resistance and venous return, thereby reducing orthostatic tachycardia.⁵² It is most useful in patients with impaired peripheral vasoconstriction (eg, neuropathic POTS) and may be less effective in those with hyperadrenergic POTS.⁶⁴ Major limitations of midodrine include worsening supine hypertension and possible urinary retention.³⁹

Because of midodrine’s short half-life, frequent dosing is required during daytime hours (eg, 8 AM, noon, and 4 PM), but it should not be taken within 4 to 5 hours of sleep because of the risk of supine hypertension. Midodrine is typically started at 2.5 to 5 mg per dose and can be titrated up to 15 mg per dose.

Midodrine is an FDA pregnancy category  C drug (adverse effects in pregnancy seen in animal models, but evidence lacking in humans). While ideally it should be avoided, we have used it safely in pregnant women with disabling POTS symptoms.

Pyridostigmine, an acetylcholinesterase inhibitor, increases cardiovagal tone and possibly sympathetic tone. It has been reported to significantly reduce standing heart rate and improve symptom burden in patients with POTS.⁶⁵ However, pyridostigmine increases gastrointestinal mobility, leading to severe adverse effects in over 20% of patients, including abdominal cramps, nausea, and diarrhea.⁶⁶

Droxidopa, a synthetic amino acid precursor of norepinephrine, improves dizziness and fatigue in POTS with minimal effects on blood pressure.⁶⁷

Modafinil, a psychostimulant, may improve POTS-associated cognitive symptoms.⁴ It also raises upright blood pressure without significantly worsening standing heart rate or acute orthostatic symptoms.⁶⁸

EFFECTS OF COMORBID DISORDERS ON MANAGEMENT

Ehlers-Danlos syndrome

Pharmacologic approaches to POTS should not be altered based on the presence of Ehlers-Danlos syndrome, but because many of these patients are prone to joint dislocation, exercise prescriptions may need adjusting.

A medical genetics consult is recommended for patients with Ehlers-Danlos syndrome. Although the hypermobile type (the form most commonly associated with POTS) is not associated with aortopathy, it can be confused with classical and vascular Ehlers-Danlos syndromes, which require serial aortic screening.³⁰

Mast cell activation syndrome

Consultation with an allergist or immunologist may help patients with severe symptoms.

Autoantibodies and autoimmunity

Treatment of the underlying disorder is recommended and can result in significantly improved POTS symptoms.

SPECIALTY CARE REFERRAL

POTS can be challenging to manage. Given the range of physiologic, emotional, and functional distress patients experience, it often requires significant physician time and multidisciplinary care. Patients with continued severe or debilitating symptoms may benefit from referral to a tertiary-care center with experience in autonomic nervous system disorders.

PROGNOSIS

Limited data are available on the long-term prognosis of POTS, and more studies are needed in pediatric and adult populations. No deaths have been reported in the handful of published cases of POTS in patients older than 50.¹ Some pediatric studies suggest that some teenagers “outgrow” their POTS. However, these data are not robust, and an alternative explanation is that as they get older, they see adult physicians for their POTS symptoms and so are lost to study follow-up.^6,44,69 

We have not often seen POTS simply resolve without ongoing treatment. However, in our experience, most patients have improved symptoms and function with multimodal treatment (ie, exercise, salt, water, stockings, and some medications) and time.

Some people, most of them relatively young women, experience lightheadedness, a racing heart, and other symptoms (but not hypotension) when they stand up, in a condition known as postural tachycardia syndrome (POTS).¹ Although not known to shorten life,¹ it can be physically and mentally debilitating.^2,3 Therapy rarely cures it, but a multifaceted approach can substantially improve quality of life.

This review outlines the evaluation and diagnosis of POTS and provides guidance for a therapy regimen.

HOW IS POTS DEFINED?

POTS is a multifactorial syndrome rather than a specific disease. It is characterized by all of the following^1,4–6:

• An increase in heart rate of ≥ 30 bpm, or ≥ 40 bpm for those under age 19, within 10 minutes of standing from a supine position
• Sustained tachycardia (> 30 seconds) 
• Absence of orthostatic hypotension (a fall in blood pressure of ≥ 20/10 mm Hg)
• Frequent and chronic duration (≥ 6 months).

These features are critical to diagnosis. Hemodynamic criteria in isolation may describe postural tachycardia but are not sufficient to diagnose POTS.

The prevalence of POTS is estimated to be between 0.2% and 1.0%,⁷ affecting up to 3 million people in the United States. Most cases arise between ages 13 and 50, with a female-to-male ratio of 5:1.⁸

MANY NAMES, SAME CONDITION

In 1871, Da Costa⁹ described a condition he called “irritable heart syndrome” that had characteristics similar to those of POTS, including extreme fatigue and exercise intolerance. Decades later, Lewis¹⁰ and Wood¹¹ provided more detailed descriptions of the disorder, renaming it “soldier’s heart” or “Da Costa syndrome.” As other cases were documented, more terms arose, including “effort syndrome” and “mitral valve prolapse syndrome.”

In 1982, Rosen and Cryer¹² were the first to use the term “postural tachycardia syndrome” for patients with disabling tachycardia upon standing without orthostatic hypotension. In 1986, Fouad et al¹³ described patients with postural tachycardia, orthostatic intolerance, and a small degree of hypotension as having “idiopathic hypovolemia.”

In 1993, Schondorf and Low¹⁴ established the current definition of POTS, leading to increased awareness and research efforts to understand its pathophysiology.

MULTIFACTORIAL PATHOPHYSIOLOGY

During the last 2 decades, several often-overlapping forms of POTS have been recognized, all of which share a final common pathway of sustained orthostatic tachycardia.^15–19 In addition, a number of common comorbidities were identified through review of large clinic populations of POTS.^20,21

Hypovolemic POTS

Up to 70% of patients with POTS have hypovolemia. The average plasma volume deficit is about 13%, which typically causes only insignificant changes in heart rate and norepinephrine levels while a patient is supine. However, blood pooling associated with upright posture further compromises cardiac output and consequently increases sympathetic nerve activity. Abnormalities in the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone volume regulation system are also suspected to impair sodium retention, contributing to hypovolemia.^1,22

Neuropathic POTS

About half of patients with POTS have partial sympathetic denervation (particularly in the lower limbs) and inadequate vasoconstriction upon standing, leading to reduced venous return and stroke volume.^17,23 A compensatory increase in sympathetic tone results in tachycardia to maintain cardiac output and blood pressure.

Hyperadrenergic POTS

Up to 50% of patients with POTS have high norepinephrine levels (≥ 600 pg/mL) when upright. This subtype, hyperadrenergic POTS, is characterized by an increase in systolic blood pressure of at least 10 mm Hg within 10 minutes of standing, with concomitant tachycardia that can be similar to or greater than that seen in nonhyperadrenergic POTS. Patients with hyperadrenergic POTS tend to report more prominent symptoms of sympathetic activation, such as palpitations, anxiety, and tremulousness.^24,25

Norepinephrine transporter deficiency

The norepinephrine transporter (NET) is on the presynaptic cleft of sympathetic neurons and serves to clear synaptic norepinephrine. NET deficiency leads to a hyperadrenergic state and elevated sympathetic nerve activation.¹⁸ NET deficiency may be induced by common antidepressants (eg, tricyclic antidepressants and serotonin-norepinephrine reuptake inhibitors) and attention-deficit disorder medications.⁴

Mast cell activation syndrome

The relationship between mast cell activation syndrome and POTS is poorly understood.^4,26 Mast cell activation syndrome has been described in a subset of patients with POTS who have sinus tachycardia accompanied by severe episodic flushing. Patients with this subtype have a hyperadrenergic response to postural change and elevated urine methylhistamine during flushing episodes.

Patients with mast cell activation syndrome tend to have strong allergic symptoms and may also have severe gastrointestinal problems, food sensitivities, dermatographism, and neuropathy. Diagnosis can be difficult, as the condition is associated with numerous markers with varying sensitivity and specificity.

Autoimmune origin

A significant minority of patients report a viral-like illness before the onset of POTS symptoms, suggesting a possible autoimmune-mediated or inflammatory cause. Also, some autoimmune disorders (eg, Sjögren syndrome) can present with a POTS-like manifestation.

Research into the role of autoantibodies in the pathophysiology of POTS offers the potential to develop novel therapeutic targets. Auto­antibodies that have been reported in POTS include those against M1 to M3 muscarinic receptors (present in over 87% of patients with POTS),²⁷ cardiac lipid raft-associated proteins,²⁸ adrenergic G-protein coupled receptors, alpha-1-adrenergic receptors, and beta-1- and beta-2-adrenergic receptors.²⁹ Although commercial enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays can assess for these antibody fragments, it is not known whether targeting the antibodies improves outcomes. At this time, antibody testing for POTS should be confined to the research setting.

LINKS TO OTHER SYNDROMES

POTS is often associated with other conditions whose symptoms cannot be explained by postural intolerance or tachycardia.

Ehlers-Danlos syndromes are a group of inherited heterogeneous disorders involving joint hypermobility, skin hyperextensibility, and tissue fragility.³⁰ The hypermobile subtype is most commonly associated with POTS, with patients often having symptoms of autonomic dysregulation and autonomic test abnormalities.^31–33 Patients with POTS may have a history of joint subluxations, joint pain, cervical instability, and spontaneous epidural leaks. The reason for the overlap between the two syndromes is not clear.

Chronic fatigue syndrome is characterized by persistent fatigue that does not resolve with rest and is not necessarily associated with orthostatic changes. More than 75% of patients with POTS report general fatigue as a major complaint, and up to 23% meet the full criteria for chronic fatigue syndrome.³⁴

A patient presenting with symptoms suggestive of POTS should first undergo a detailed history and physical examination. Other causes of sinus tachycardia should be considered. 

Detailed history, symptom review

The history should focus on determining symptom burden, including tachycardia onset, frequency, severity, and triggers; the presence of syncope; and the impact of symptoms on daily function and quality of life.

Presyncope and its associated symptoms occur in less than one-third of patients with POTS, and syncope is not a principal feature.⁴ If syncope is the predominant complaint, alternative causes should be investigated. The usual cause of syncope in the general population is thought to be vasovagal.

In addition to orthostatic intolerance, gastrointestinal disturbances are common in POTS, presenting as abdominal pain, heartburn, irregular bowel movements, diarrhea, or constipation. Symptoms of gastroparesis are less common. Gastrointestinal symptoms tend to be prolonged, lasting hours and occurring multiple times a week. They tend not to improve in the supine position.³⁵ 

POTS-associated symptoms may develop insidiously, but patients often report onset after an acute stressor such as pregnancy, major surgery, or a presumed viral illness.⁴ Whether these putative triggers are causative or coincidental is unknown. Symptoms of orthostatic intolerance tend to be exacerbated by dehydration, heat, alcohol, exercise, and menstruation.^36,37

Consider the family history: 1 in 8 patients with POTS reports familial orthostatic intolerance,³⁸ suggesting a genetic role in some patients. Inquire about symptoms or a previous diagnosis of Ehlers-Danlos syndrome and mast cell activation syndrome.

Consider other conditions

Pheochromocytoma causes hyperadrenergic symptoms (eg, palpitations, lightheadedness) like those in POTS, but patients with pheochromocytoma typically have these symptoms while supine. Pheochromocytoma is also characterized by plasma norepinephrine levels much higher than in POTS.⁴ Plasma metanephrine testing helps diagnose or rule out pheochromocytoma.⁵

Inappropriate sinus tachycardia, like pheochromocytoma, also has clinical features similar to those of POTS, as well as tachycardia present when supine. It involves higher sympathetic tone and lower parasympathetic tone compared with POTS; patients commonly have a daytime resting heart rate of at least 100 bpm or a 24-hour mean heart rate of at least 90 bpm.^1,42 While the intrinsic heart rate is heightened in inappropriate sinus tachycardia, it is not different between POTS patients and healthy individuals.^42,43 Distinguishing POTS from inappropriate sinus tachycardia is further complicated by the broad inclusion criteria of most studies of inappropriate sinus tachycardia, which failed to exclude patients with POTS.⁴⁴ The Heart Rhythm Society recently adopted distinct definitions for the 2 conditions.¹

Physical examination: Focus on vital signs

Dependent acrocyanosis—dark red-blue discoloration of the lower legs that is cold to the touch—occurs in about half of patients with POTS upon standing.⁴ Dependent acrocyanosis is associated with joint hypermobility and Ehlers-Danlos syndrome, so these conditions should also be considered if findings are positive.

Laboratory testing for other causes

Laboratory testing is used mainly to detect primary causes of sinus tachycardia. Tests should include:

• Complete blood cell count with hematocrit (for severe anemia)
• Thyroid-stimulating hormone level (for hyperthyroidism)
• Electrolyte panel (for significant electrolyte disturbances).

Evidence is insufficient to support routinely measuring the vitamin B₁₂ level, iron indices, and serum markers for celiac disease, although these may be done if the history or physical examination suggests related problems.⁴ Sicca symptoms (severe dry eye or dry mouth) should trigger evaluation for Sjögren syndrome.

Electrocardiography needed

Electrocardiography should be performed to investigate for cardiac conduction abnormalities as well as for resting markers of a supraventricular tachyarrhythmia. Extended ambulatory (Holter) monitoring may be useful to evaluate for a transient reentrant tachyarrhythmia⁴; however, it does not record body position, so it can be difficult to determine if detected episodes of tachycardia are related to posture.

Additional testing for select cases

Further investigation is usually not needed to diagnose POTS but should be considered in some cases. Advanced tests are typically performed at a tertiary care referral center and include: 


• Quantitative sensory testing to evaluate for small-fiber neuropathy (ie, Quantitative Sudomotor Axon Reflex Test, or QSART), which occurs in the neuropathic POTS subtype
• Formal autonomic function testing to characterize neurovascular responsiveness  
• Supine and standing plasma norepinephrine levels (fractionated catecholamines) to characterize the net activation of the sympathetic nervous system
• Blood volume assessments to assess hypovolemia 
• Formal exercise testing to objectively quantify exercise capacity.

No single universal gold-standard therapy exists for POTS, and management should be individually determined with the primary goals of treating symptoms and restoring function. A graded approach should be used, starting with conservative nonpharmacologic therapies and adding medications as needed.

While the disease course varies substantially from patient to patient, proper management is strongly associated with eventual symptom improvement.¹

NONPHARMACOLOGIC STEPS FIRST

Education

Patients should be informed of the nature of their condition and referred to appropriate healthcare personnel. POTS is a chronic illness requiring individualized coping strategies, intensive physician interaction, and support of a multidisciplinary team. Patients and family members can be reassured that most symptoms improve over time with appropriate diagnosis and treatment.¹ Patients should be advised to avoid aggravating triggers and activities.

Exercise

Exercise programs are encouraged but should be introduced gradually, as physical activity can exacerbate symptoms, especially at the outset. Several studies have reported benefits from a short-term (3-month) program, in which the patient gradually progresses from non-upright exercise (eg, rowing machine, recumbent cycle, swimming) to upright endurance exercises. At the end of these programs, significant cardiac remodeling, improved quality of life, and reduced heart rate responses to standing have been reported, and benefits have been reported to persist in patients who continued exercising after the 3-month study period.^46,47

Despite the benefits of exercise interventions, compliance is low.^46,47 To prevent early discouragement, patients should be advised that it can take 4 to 6 weeks of continued exercise before benefits appear. Patients are encouraged to exercise every other day for 30 minutes or more. Regimens should primarily focus on aerobic conditioning, but resistance training, concentrating on thigh muscles, can also help. Exercise is a treatment and not a cure, and benefits can rapidly disappear if regular activity (at least 3 times per week) is stopped.⁴⁸

Compression stockings

Compression stockings help reduce peripheral venous pooling and enhance venous return to the heart. Waist-high stockings with compression of at least 30 to 40 mm Hg offer the best results. 

Diet

Increased fluid and salt intake is advisable for patients with suspected hypovolemia. At least 2 to 3 L of water accompanied by 10 to 12 g of daily sodium intake is recommended.¹ This can usually be accomplished with diet and salt added to food, but salt tablets can be used if the patient prefers. The resultant plasma volume expansion may help reduce the reflex tachycardia upon standing.⁴⁹

Check medications

Rescue therapy with saline infusion

Intravenous saline infusion can augment blood volume in patients who are clinically decompensated and present with severe symptoms.¹ Intermittent infusion of 1 L of normal saline has been found to significantly reduce orthostatic tachycardia and related symptoms in patients with POTS, contributing to improved quality of life.^51,52

Chronic saline infusions are not recommended for long-term care because of the risk of access complications and infection.¹ Moak et al⁵³ reported a high rate of bacteremia in a cohort of children with POTS with regular saline infusions, most of whom had a central line. On the other hand, Ruzieh et al⁵⁴ reported significantly improved symptoms with regular saline infusions without a high rate of complications, but patients in this study received infusions for only a few months and through a peripheral intravenous catheter.

DRUG THERAPY

No medications are approved by the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) or Health Canada specifically for treating POTS, making all pharmacologic recommendations off-label. Although the drugs discussed below have been evaluated for POTS in controlled laboratory settings, they have yet to be tested in robust clinical trials.

Blood volume expansion

Several drugs expand blood volume, which may reduce orthostatic tachycardia.

Fludrocortisone is a synthetic aldosterone analogue that enhances sodium and water retention. Although one observational study found that it normalizes hemodynamic changes in response to orthostatic stress, no high-level evidence exists for its effectiveness for POTS.⁵⁵ It is generally well tolerated, although possible adverse effects include hyperkalemia, hypertension, fatigue, nausea, headache, and edema.^5,56

Desmopressin is a synthetic version of a natural antidiuretic hormone that increases kidney-mediated free-water reabsorption without sodium retention. It significantly reduces upright heart rate in patients with POTS and improves symptom burden. Although potential adverse effects include edema and headache, hyponatremia is the primary concern with daily use, especially with the increased water intake advised for POTS.⁵⁷ Patients should be advised to use desmopressin no more than once a week for the acute improvement of symptoms. Intermittent monitoring of serum sodium levels is recommended for safety.

Erythropoietin replacement has been suggested for treating POTS to address the significant deficit in red blood cell volume. Although erythropoietin therapy has a direct vasoconstrictive effect and largely improves red blood cell volume in patients with POTS, it does not expand plasma volume, so orthostatic tachycardia is not itself reduced.²² Nevertheless, it may significantly improve POTS symptoms refractory to more common methods of treatment, and it should be reserved for such cases. In addition to the lack of effect on orthostatic tachycardia, drawbacks to using erythropoietin include its high cost, the need for subcutaneous administration, and the risk of life-threatening complications such as myocardial infarction and stroke.^58,59

Heart rate-lowering agents

Propranolol, a nonselective beta-adrenergic antagonist, can significantly reduce standing heart rate and improve symptoms at low dosages (10–20 mg). Higher dosages can further restrain orthostatic tachycardia but are not as well tolerated, mainly due to hypotension and worsening of existing symptoms such as fatigue.⁶⁰ Regular-acting propranolol works for about 4 to 5 hours per dose, so full-day coverage often requires dosing 4 times per day.

Ivabradine is a selective blocker of the  “funny” (I_f) channel that reduces the sinus node firing rate without affecting blood pressure, so it slows heart rate without causing supine hypertension or orthostatic hypotension.

A retrospective case series found that 60% of patients with POTS treated with ivabradine reported symptomatic improvement, and all patients experienced reduced tachycardia with continued use.⁶¹ Ivabradine has not been compared with placebo or propranolol in a randomized controlled trial, and it has not been well studied in pregnancy and so should be avoided because of potential teratogenic effects.

When prescribing ivabradine for women of childbearing age, a negative pregnancy test may be documented prior to initiation of therapy, and the use of highly effective methods of contraception is recommended. Ivabradine should be avoided in women contemplating pregnancy. Insurance coverage can limit access to ivabradine in the United States.

Central nervous system sympatholytics

Patients with prominent hyperadrenergic features may benefit from central sympatholytic agents. However, these drugs may not be well tolerated in patients with neuropathic POTS because of the effects of reduced systemic vascular resistance⁵ and the possible exacerbation of drowsiness, fatigue, and mental clouding.⁴ Patients can be extremely sensitive to these medications, so they should initially be prescribed at the lowest dose, then gradually increased as tolerated.

Clonidine, an alpha-2-adrenergic agonist, decreases central sympathetic tone. In hyperadrenergic patients, clonidine can stabilize heart rate and blood pressure, thereby reducing orthostatic symptoms.⁶²

Methyldopa has effects similar to those of clonidine but is easier to titrate owing to its longer half-life.⁶³ Methyldopa is typically started at 125 mg at bedtime and increased to 125 mg twice daily, if tolerated.             

Midodrine is a prodrug. The active form, an alpha-1-adrenergic agonist, constricts peripheral veins and arteries to increase vascular resistance and venous return, thereby reducing orthostatic tachycardia.⁵² It is most useful in patients with impaired peripheral vasoconstriction (eg, neuropathic POTS) and may be less effective in those with hyperadrenergic POTS.⁶⁴ Major limitations of midodrine include worsening supine hypertension and possible urinary retention.³⁹

Because of midodrine’s short half-life, frequent dosing is required during daytime hours (eg, 8 AM, noon, and 4 PM), but it should not be taken within 4 to 5 hours of sleep because of the risk of supine hypertension. Midodrine is typically started at 2.5 to 5 mg per dose and can be titrated up to 15 mg per dose.

Midodrine is an FDA pregnancy category  C drug (adverse effects in pregnancy seen in animal models, but evidence lacking in humans). While ideally it should be avoided, we have used it safely in pregnant women with disabling POTS symptoms.

Pyridostigmine, an acetylcholinesterase inhibitor, increases cardiovagal tone and possibly sympathetic tone. It has been reported to significantly reduce standing heart rate and improve symptom burden in patients with POTS.⁶⁵ However, pyridostigmine increases gastrointestinal mobility, leading to severe adverse effects in over 20% of patients, including abdominal cramps, nausea, and diarrhea.⁶⁶

Droxidopa, a synthetic amino acid precursor of norepinephrine, improves dizziness and fatigue in POTS with minimal effects on blood pressure.⁶⁷

Modafinil, a psychostimulant, may improve POTS-associated cognitive symptoms.⁴ It also raises upright blood pressure without significantly worsening standing heart rate or acute orthostatic symptoms.⁶⁸

EFFECTS OF COMORBID DISORDERS ON MANAGEMENT

Ehlers-Danlos syndrome

Pharmacologic approaches to POTS should not be altered based on the presence of Ehlers-Danlos syndrome, but because many of these patients are prone to joint dislocation, exercise prescriptions may need adjusting.

A medical genetics consult is recommended for patients with Ehlers-Danlos syndrome. Although the hypermobile type (the form most commonly associated with POTS) is not associated with aortopathy, it can be confused with classical and vascular Ehlers-Danlos syndromes, which require serial aortic screening.³⁰

Mast cell activation syndrome

Consultation with an allergist or immunologist may help patients with severe symptoms.

Autoantibodies and autoimmunity

Treatment of the underlying disorder is recommended and can result in significantly improved POTS symptoms.

SPECIALTY CARE REFERRAL

POTS can be challenging to manage. Given the range of physiologic, emotional, and functional distress patients experience, it often requires significant physician time and multidisciplinary care. Patients with continued severe or debilitating symptoms may benefit from referral to a tertiary-care center with experience in autonomic nervous system disorders.

PROGNOSIS

Limited data are available on the long-term prognosis of POTS, and more studies are needed in pediatric and adult populations. No deaths have been reported in the handful of published cases of POTS in patients older than 50.¹ Some pediatric studies suggest that some teenagers “outgrow” their POTS. However, these data are not robust, and an alternative explanation is that as they get older, they see adult physicians for their POTS symptoms and so are lost to study follow-up.^6,44,69 

We have not often seen POTS simply resolve without ongoing treatment. However, in our experience, most patients have improved symptoms and function with multimodal treatment (ie, exercise, salt, water, stockings, and some medications) and time.

A 72-year-old woman presents to the emergency department with progressive nausea and vomiting. One week earlier, she developed early satiety and nausea with vomiting after eating solid food. Three days later her symptoms progressed, and she became unable to take anything by mouth. The patient also experienced a 40-lb weight loss in the previous 3 months. She denies symptoms of abdominal pain, hematemesis, or melena. Her medical history includes cholecystectomy and type 2 diabetes mellitus, diagnosed 1 year ago. She has no family history of gastrointestinal malignancy. She says she smoked 1 pack a day in her 20s. She does not consume alcohol.

On physical examination, she is normotensive with a heart rate of 105 beats per minute. The oral mucosa is dry, and the abdomen is mildly distended and tender to palpation in the epigastrium. Laboratory evaluation reveals hypokalemia and metabolic alkalosis.

Computed tomography (CT) reveals a mass 3 cm by 4 cm in the pancreatic head. The mass has invaded the medial wall of the duodenum, with obstruction of the pancreatic and common bile ducts and extension into and occlusion of the superior mesenteric vein, with soft-tissue expansion around the superior mesenteric artery. CT also reveals retained stomach contents and an air-fluid level consistent with gastric outlet obstruction.

INTRINSIC OR EXTRINSIC BLOCKAGE

Gastric outlet obstruction, also called pyloric obstruction, is caused by intrinsic or extrinsic mechanical blockage of gastric emptying, generally in the distal stomach, pyloric channel, or duodenum, with associated symptoms of nausea, vomiting, abdominal pain, and early satiety. It is encountered in both the clinic and the hospital.

Here, we review the causes, diagnosis, and management of this disorder.

BENIGN AND MALIGNANT CAUSES

In a retrospective study of 76 patients hospitalized with gastric outlet obstruction between 2006 and 2015 at our institution,² 29 cases (38%) were due to malignancy and 47 (62%) were due to benign causes. Pancreatic adenocarcinoma accounted for 13 cases (17%), while gastric adenocarcinoma accounted for 5 cases (7%); less common malignant causes were cholangiocarcinoma, cancer of the ampulla of Vater, duodenal adenocarcinoma, hepatocellular carcinoma, and metastatic disease. Of the benign causes, the most common were peptic ulcer disease (13 cases, 17%) and postoperative strictures or adhesions (11 cases, 14%).

These numbers reflect general trends around the world.

Less gastric cancer, more pancreatic cancer

The last several decades have seen a trend toward more cases due to cancer and fewer due to benign causes.^3–14

In earlier studies in both developed and developing countries, gastric adenocarcinoma was the most common malignant cause of gastric outlet obstruction. Since then, it has become less common in Western countries, although it remains more common in Asia and Africa.^7–14 This trend likely reflects environmental factors, including decreased prevalence of Helicobacter pylori infection, a major risk factor for gastric cancer, in Western countries.^15–17

At the same time, pancreatic cancer is on the rise,¹⁶ and up to 20% of patients with pancreatic cancer develop gastric outlet obstruction.¹⁸ In a prospective observational study of 108 patients with malignant gastric outlet obstruction undergoing endoscopic stenting, pancreatic cancer was by far the most common malignancy, occurring in 54% of patients, followed by gastric cancer in 13%.¹⁹

Less peptic ulcer disease, but still common

Peptic ulcer disease used to account for up to 90% of cases of gastric outlet obstruction, and it is still the most common benign cause.

In 1990, gastric outlet obstruction was estimated to occur in 5% to 10% of all hospital admissions for ulcer-related complications, accounting for 2,000 operations annually.^20,21 Gastric outlet obstruction now occurs in fewer than 5% of patients with duodenal ulcer disease and fewer than 2% of patients with gastric ulcer disease.²²

Peptic ulcer disease remains an important cause of obstruction in countries with poor access to acid-suppressing drugs.²³

Gastric outlet obstruction occurs in both acute and chronic peptic ulcer disease. In acute peptic ulcer disease, tissue inflammation and edema result in mechanical obstruction. Chronic peptic ulcer disease results in tissue scarring and fibrosis with strictures.²⁰

Environmental factors, including improved diet, hygiene, physical activity, and the decreased prevalence of H pylori infection, also contribute to the decreased prevalence of peptic ulcer disease and its complications, including gastric outlet obstruction.³ The continued occurrence of peptic ulcer disease is associated with widespread use of low-dose aspirin and nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs), the most common causes of peptic ulcer disease in Western countries.^24,25

Other nonmalignant causes of gastric outlet obstruction are diverse and less common. They include caustic ingestion, postsurgical strictures, benign tumors of the gastrointestinal tract, Crohn disease, and pancreatic disorders including acute pancreatitis, pancreatic pseudocyst, chronic pancreatitis, and annular pancreas. Intramural duodenal hematoma may cause obstruction after blunt abdominal trauma, endoscopic biopsy, or gastrostomy tube migration, especially in the setting of a bleeding disorder or anticoagulation.²⁶

Tuberculosis should be suspected in countries in which it is common.⁷ In a prospective study of 64 patients with benign gastric outlet obstruction in India,²⁷ 16 (25%) had corrosive injury, 16 (25%) had tuberculosis, and 15 (23%) had peptic ulcer disease. Compared with patients with corrosive injury and peptic ulcer disease, patients with gastroduodenal tuberculosis had the best outcomes with appropriate treatment.

Other reported causes include Bouveret syndrome (an impacted gallstone in the proximal duodenum), phytobezoar, diaphragmatic hernia, gastric volvulus, and Ladd bands (peritoneal bands associated with intestinal malrotation).^7,28,29

Symptoms of gastric outlet obstruction include nausea, nonbilious vomiting, epigastric pain, early satiety, abdominal distention, and weight loss.

In our patients, the most common presenting symptoms were nausea and vomiting (80%), followed by abdominal pain (72%); weight loss (15%), abdominal distention (15%), and early satiety (9%) were less common.²

Patients with gastric outlet obstruction secondary to malignancy generally present with a shorter duration of symptoms than those with peptic ulcer disease and are more likely to be older.^8,13 Other conditions with an acute onset of symptoms include gastric polyp prolapse, percutaneous endoscopic gastrostomy tube migration, gastric volvulus, and gallstone impaction.

Patients with gastric outlet obstruction associated with peptic ulcer disease generally have a long-standing history of symptoms, including dyspepsia and weight loss over several years.⁴

SIGNS ON EXAMINATION

On examination, look for signs of chronic gastric obstruction and its consequences, such as malnutrition, cachexia, volume depletion, and dental erosions.

A succussion splash may suggest gastric outlet obstruction. This is elicited by rocking the patient back and forth by the hips or abdomen while listening over the stomach for a splash, which may be heard without a stethoscope. The test is considered positive if present 3 or more hours after drinking fluids and suggests retention of gastric materials.^30,31

In thin individuals, chronic gastric outlet obstruction makes the stomach dilate and hypertrophy, which may be evident by a palpably thickened stomach with visible gastric peristalsis.⁴

Other notable findings on physical examination may include a palpable abdominal mass, epigastric pain, or an abnormality suggestive of metastatic gastric cancer, such as an enlarged left supraclavicular lymph node (Virchow node) or periumbilical lymph node (Sister Mary Joseph nodule). The Virchow node is at the junction of the thoracic duct and the left subclavian vein where the lymphatic circulation from the body drains into the systemic circulation, and it may be the first sign of gastric cancer.³² Sister Mary Joseph nodule (named after a surgical assistant to Dr. William James Mayo) refers to a palpable mass at the umbilicus, generally resulting from metastasis of an abdominal malignancy.³³

SIGNS ON FURTHER STUDIES

Laboratory evaluation may show signs of poor oral intake and electrolyte abnormalities secondary to chronic nausea, vomiting, and dehydration, including hypochloremic metabolic alkalosis and hypokalemia.

The underlying cause of gastric outlet obstruction has major implications for treatment and prognosis and cannot be differentiated by clinical presentation alone.^1,9 Diagnosis is based on clinical features and radiologic or endoscopic evaluation consistent with gastric outlet obstruction.

Plain radiography may reveal an enlarged gastric bubble, and contrast studies may be useful to determine whether the obstruction is partial or complete, depending on whether the contrast passes into the small bowel.

Upper endoscopy is often needed to establish the diagnosis and cause. Emptying the stomach with a nasogastric tube is recommended before endoscopy to minimize the risk of aspiration during the procedure, and endotracheal intubation should be considered for airway protection.³⁴ Findings of gastric outlet obstruction on upper endoscopy include retained food and liquid. Endoscopic biopsy is important to differentiate between benign and malignant causes. For patients with malignancy, endoscopic ultrasonography is useful for diagnosis via tissue sampling with fine-needle aspiration and locoregional staging.³⁵

A strategy. Most patients whose clinical presentation suggests gastric outlet obstruction require cross-sectional radiologic imaging, upper endoscopy, or both.³⁶ CT is the preferred imaging study to evaluate for intestinal obstruction.^36,37 Patients with suspected complete obstruction or perforation should undergo CT before upper endoscopy. Oral contrast may interfere with endoscopy and should be avoided if endoscopy is planned. Additionally, giving oral contrast may worsen patient discomfort and increase the risk of nausea, vomiting, and aspiration.^36,37

Following radiographic evaluation, upper endoscopy can be performed after gastric decompression to identify the location and extent of the obstruction and to potentially provide a definitive diagnosis with biopsy.³⁶

DIFFERENTIATE FROM GASTROPARESIS

Gastroparesis is a chronic neuromuscular disorder characterized by delayed gastric emptying without mechanical obstruction.³⁸ The most common causes are diabetes, surgery, and idiopathy. Other causes include viral infection, connective tissue diseases, ischemia, infiltrative disorders, radiation, neurologic disorders, and paraneoplastic syndromes.^39,40

Gastric outlet obstruction and gastroparesis share clinical symptoms including nausea, vomiting, abdominal pain, early satiety, and weight loss and are important to differentiate.^36,38 Although abdominal pain may be present in both gastric outlet obstruction and gastroparesis, in gastroparesis it tends not to be the dominant symptom.⁴⁰

Gastric scintigraphy is most commonly used to objectively quantify delayed gastric emptying.³⁹ Upper endoscopy is imperative to exclude mechanical obstruction.³⁹

Initially, patients with signs and symptoms of gastric outlet obstruction should be given:

• Nothing by mouth (NPO)
• Intravenous fluids to correct volume depletion and electrolyte abnormalities
• A nasogastric tube for gastric decompression and symptom relief if symptoms persist despite being NPO
• A parenteral proton pump inhibitor, regardless of the cause of obstruction, to decrease gastric secretions⁴¹
• Medications for pain and nausea, if needed.

Definitive treatment of gastric outlet obstruction depends on the underlying cause, whether benign or malignant.

Management of benign gastric outlet obstruction

Symptoms of gastric outlet obstruction resolve spontaneously in about half of cases caused by acute peptic ulcer disease, as acute inflammation resolves.^9,22

Endoscopic dilation is an important option in patients with benign gastric outlet obstruction, including peptic ulcer disease. Peptic ulcer disease-induced gastric outlet obstruction can be safely treated with endoscopic balloon dilation. This treatment almost always relieves symptoms immediately; however, the long-term response has varied from 16% to 100%, and patients may require more than 1 dilation procedure.^25,42,43 The need for 2 or more dilation procedures may predict need for surgery.⁴⁴ Gastric outlet obstruction after caustic ingestion or endoscopic submucosal dissection may also respond to endoscopic balloon dilation.³⁶

Eradication of H pylori may be effective and lead to complete resolution of symptoms in patients with gastric outlet obstruction due to this infection.^45–47

NSAIDs should be discontinued in patients with peptic ulcer disease and gastric outlet obstruction. These drugs damage the gastrointestinal mucosa by inhibiting cyclo-oxygenase (COX) enzymes and decreasing synthesis of prostaglandins, which are important for mucosal defense.⁴⁸ Patients may be unaware of NSAIDs contained in over-the-counter medications and may have difficulty discontinuing NSAIDs taken for pain.⁴⁹

These drugs are an important cause of refractory peptic ulcer disease and can be detected by platelet COX activity testing, although this test is not widely available. In a study of patients with peptic ulcer disease without definite NSAID use or H pylori infection, up to one-third had evidence of surreptitious NSAID use as detected by platelet COX activity testing.⁵⁰ In another study,⁵¹ platelet COX activity testing discovered over 20% more aspirin users than clinical history alone.

Surgery for patients with benign gastric outlet obstruction is used only when medical management and endoscopic dilation fail. Ideally, surgery should relieve the obstruction and target the underlying cause, such as peptic ulcer disease. Laparoscopic surgery is generally preferred to open surgery because patients can resume oral intake sooner, have a shorter hospital stay, and have less intraoperative blood loss.⁵² The simplest surgical procedure to relieve obstruction is laparoscopic gastrojejunostomy.

Patients with gastric outlet obstruction and peptic ulcer disease warrant laparoscopic vagotomy and antrectomy or distal gastrectomy. This removes the obstruction and the stimulus for gastric secretion.⁵³ An alternative is vagotomy with a drainage procedure (pyloroplasty or gastrojejunostomy), which has a similar postoperative course and reduction in gastric acid secretion compared with antrectomy or distal gastrectomy.^53,54

Daily proton pump inhibitors can be used for patients with benign gastric outlet obstruction not associated with peptic ulcer disease or risk factors; for such cases, vagotomy is not required.

Management of malignant gastric outlet obstruction

Patients with malignant gastric outlet obstruction may have intractable nausea and abdominal pain secondary to retention of gastric contents. The major goal of therapy is to improve symptoms and restore tolerance of an oral diet. The short-term prognosis of malignant gastric outlet obstruction is poor, with a median survival of 3 to 4 months, as these patients often have unresectable disease.⁵⁵

Surgical bypass used to be the standard of care for palliation of malignant gastric obstruction, but that was before endoscopic stenting was developed.

Endoscopic stenting allows patients to resume oral intake and get out of the hospital sooner with fewer complications than with open surgical bypass. It may be a more appropriate option for palliation of symptoms in patients with malignant obstruction who have a poor prognosis and prefer a less invasive intervention.^55,56

Endoscopic duodenal stenting of malignant gastric outlet obstruction has a success rate of greater than 90%, and most patients can tolerate a mechanical soft diet afterward.³⁴ The procedure is usually performed with a 9-cm or 12-cm self-expanding duodenal stent, 22 mm in diameter, placed over a guide wire under endoscopic and fluoroscopic guidance (Figure 2). The stent is placed by removing the outer catheter, with distal-to-proximal stent deployment.

Patients who also have biliary obstruction may require biliary stent placement, which is generally performed before duodenal stenting. For patients with an endoscopic stent who develop biliary obstruction, endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography can be attempted with placement of a biliary stent; however, these patients may require biliary drain placement by percutaneous transhepatic cholangiography or by endoscopic ultrasonographically guided transduodenal or transgastric biliary drainage.

From 20% to 30% of patients require repeated endoscopic stent placement, although most patients die within several months after stenting.³⁴ Surgical options for patients who do not respond to endoscopic stenting include open or laparoscopic gastrojejunostomy.⁵⁵

Laparoscopic gastrojejunostomy may provide better long-term outcomes than duodenal stenting for patients with malignant gastric outlet obstruction and a life expectancy longer than a few months.

A 2017 retrospective study of 155 patients with gastric outlet obstruction secondary to unresectable gastric cancer suggested that those who underwent laparoscopic gastrojejunostomy had better oral intake, better tolerance of chemotherapy, and longer overall survival than those who underwent duodenal stenting. Postsurgical complications were more common in the laparoscopic gastrojejunostomy group (16%) than in the duodenal stenting group (0%).⁵⁷

In most of the studies comparing endoscopic stenting with surgery, the surgery was open gastrojejunostomy; there are limited data directly comparing stenting with laparoscopic gastrojejunostomy.⁵⁵ Endoscopic stenting is estimated to be significantly less costly than surgery, with a median cost of $12,000 less than gastrojejunostomy.⁵⁸ As an alternative to enteral stenting and surgical gastrojejunostomy, ultrasonography-guided endoscopic gastrojejunostomy or gastroenterostomy with placement of a lumen-apposing metal stent is emerging as a third treatment option and is under active investigation.⁵⁹

Patients with malignancy that is potentially curable by resection should undergo surgical evaluation before consideration of endoscopic stenting. For patients who are not candidates for surgery or endoscopic stenting, a percutaneous gastrostomy tube can be considered for gastric decompression and symptom relief.

CASE CONCLUDED

The patient underwent esophagogastroduodenoscopy with endoscopic ultrasonography for evaluation of her pancreatic mass. Before the procedure, she was intubated to minimize the risk of aspiration due to persistent nausea and retained gastric contents. A large submucosal mass was found in the duodenal bulb. Endoscopic ultrasonography showed a mass within the pancreatic head with pancreatic duct obstruction. Fine-needle aspiration biopsy was performed, and pathology study revealed pancreatic adenocarcinoma. The patient underwent stenting with a 22-mm by 12-cm WallFlex stent (Boston Scientific), which led to resolution of nausea and advancement to a mechanical soft diet on hospital discharge.

She was scheduled for follow-up in the outpatient clinic for treatment of pancreatic cancer.

A 72-year-old woman presents to the emergency department with progressive nausea and vomiting. One week earlier, she developed early satiety and nausea with vomiting after eating solid food. Three days later her symptoms progressed, and she became unable to take anything by mouth. The patient also experienced a 40-lb weight loss in the previous 3 months. She denies symptoms of abdominal pain, hematemesis, or melena. Her medical history includes cholecystectomy and type 2 diabetes mellitus, diagnosed 1 year ago. She has no family history of gastrointestinal malignancy. She says she smoked 1 pack a day in her 20s. She does not consume alcohol.

On physical examination, she is normotensive with a heart rate of 105 beats per minute. The oral mucosa is dry, and the abdomen is mildly distended and tender to palpation in the epigastrium. Laboratory evaluation reveals hypokalemia and metabolic alkalosis.

Computed tomography (CT) reveals a mass 3 cm by 4 cm in the pancreatic head. The mass has invaded the medial wall of the duodenum, with obstruction of the pancreatic and common bile ducts and extension into and occlusion of the superior mesenteric vein, with soft-tissue expansion around the superior mesenteric artery. CT also reveals retained stomach contents and an air-fluid level consistent with gastric outlet obstruction.

INTRINSIC OR EXTRINSIC BLOCKAGE

Gastric outlet obstruction, also called pyloric obstruction, is caused by intrinsic or extrinsic mechanical blockage of gastric emptying, generally in the distal stomach, pyloric channel, or duodenum, with associated symptoms of nausea, vomiting, abdominal pain, and early satiety. It is encountered in both the clinic and the hospital.

Here, we review the causes, diagnosis, and management of this disorder.

BENIGN AND MALIGNANT CAUSES

In a retrospective study of 76 patients hospitalized with gastric outlet obstruction between 2006 and 2015 at our institution,² 29 cases (38%) were due to malignancy and 47 (62%) were due to benign causes. Pancreatic adenocarcinoma accounted for 13 cases (17%), while gastric adenocarcinoma accounted for 5 cases (7%); less common malignant causes were cholangiocarcinoma, cancer of the ampulla of Vater, duodenal adenocarcinoma, hepatocellular carcinoma, and metastatic disease. Of the benign causes, the most common were peptic ulcer disease (13 cases, 17%) and postoperative strictures or adhesions (11 cases, 14%).

These numbers reflect general trends around the world.

Less gastric cancer, more pancreatic cancer

The last several decades have seen a trend toward more cases due to cancer and fewer due to benign causes.^3–14

In earlier studies in both developed and developing countries, gastric adenocarcinoma was the most common malignant cause of gastric outlet obstruction. Since then, it has become less common in Western countries, although it remains more common in Asia and Africa.^7–14 This trend likely reflects environmental factors, including decreased prevalence of Helicobacter pylori infection, a major risk factor for gastric cancer, in Western countries.^15–17

At the same time, pancreatic cancer is on the rise,¹⁶ and up to 20% of patients with pancreatic cancer develop gastric outlet obstruction.¹⁸ In a prospective observational study of 108 patients with malignant gastric outlet obstruction undergoing endoscopic stenting, pancreatic cancer was by far the most common malignancy, occurring in 54% of patients, followed by gastric cancer in 13%.¹⁹

Less peptic ulcer disease, but still common

Peptic ulcer disease used to account for up to 90% of cases of gastric outlet obstruction, and it is still the most common benign cause.

In 1990, gastric outlet obstruction was estimated to occur in 5% to 10% of all hospital admissions for ulcer-related complications, accounting for 2,000 operations annually.^20,21 Gastric outlet obstruction now occurs in fewer than 5% of patients with duodenal ulcer disease and fewer than 2% of patients with gastric ulcer disease.²²

Peptic ulcer disease remains an important cause of obstruction in countries with poor access to acid-suppressing drugs.²³

Gastric outlet obstruction occurs in both acute and chronic peptic ulcer disease. In acute peptic ulcer disease, tissue inflammation and edema result in mechanical obstruction. Chronic peptic ulcer disease results in tissue scarring and fibrosis with strictures.²⁰

Environmental factors, including improved diet, hygiene, physical activity, and the decreased prevalence of H pylori infection, also contribute to the decreased prevalence of peptic ulcer disease and its complications, including gastric outlet obstruction.³ The continued occurrence of peptic ulcer disease is associated with widespread use of low-dose aspirin and nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs), the most common causes of peptic ulcer disease in Western countries.^24,25

Other nonmalignant causes of gastric outlet obstruction are diverse and less common. They include caustic ingestion, postsurgical strictures, benign tumors of the gastrointestinal tract, Crohn disease, and pancreatic disorders including acute pancreatitis, pancreatic pseudocyst, chronic pancreatitis, and annular pancreas. Intramural duodenal hematoma may cause obstruction after blunt abdominal trauma, endoscopic biopsy, or gastrostomy tube migration, especially in the setting of a bleeding disorder or anticoagulation.²⁶

Tuberculosis should be suspected in countries in which it is common.⁷ In a prospective study of 64 patients with benign gastric outlet obstruction in India,²⁷ 16 (25%) had corrosive injury, 16 (25%) had tuberculosis, and 15 (23%) had peptic ulcer disease. Compared with patients with corrosive injury and peptic ulcer disease, patients with gastroduodenal tuberculosis had the best outcomes with appropriate treatment.

Other reported causes include Bouveret syndrome (an impacted gallstone in the proximal duodenum), phytobezoar, diaphragmatic hernia, gastric volvulus, and Ladd bands (peritoneal bands associated with intestinal malrotation).^7,28,29

Symptoms of gastric outlet obstruction include nausea, nonbilious vomiting, epigastric pain, early satiety, abdominal distention, and weight loss.

In our patients, the most common presenting symptoms were nausea and vomiting (80%), followed by abdominal pain (72%); weight loss (15%), abdominal distention (15%), and early satiety (9%) were less common.²

Patients with gastric outlet obstruction secondary to malignancy generally present with a shorter duration of symptoms than those with peptic ulcer disease and are more likely to be older.^8,13 Other conditions with an acute onset of symptoms include gastric polyp prolapse, percutaneous endoscopic gastrostomy tube migration, gastric volvulus, and gallstone impaction.

Patients with gastric outlet obstruction associated with peptic ulcer disease generally have a long-standing history of symptoms, including dyspepsia and weight loss over several years.⁴

SIGNS ON EXAMINATION

On examination, look for signs of chronic gastric obstruction and its consequences, such as malnutrition, cachexia, volume depletion, and dental erosions.

A succussion splash may suggest gastric outlet obstruction. This is elicited by rocking the patient back and forth by the hips or abdomen while listening over the stomach for a splash, which may be heard without a stethoscope. The test is considered positive if present 3 or more hours after drinking fluids and suggests retention of gastric materials.^30,31

In thin individuals, chronic gastric outlet obstruction makes the stomach dilate and hypertrophy, which may be evident by a palpably thickened stomach with visible gastric peristalsis.⁴

Other notable findings on physical examination may include a palpable abdominal mass, epigastric pain, or an abnormality suggestive of metastatic gastric cancer, such as an enlarged left supraclavicular lymph node (Virchow node) or periumbilical lymph node (Sister Mary Joseph nodule). The Virchow node is at the junction of the thoracic duct and the left subclavian vein where the lymphatic circulation from the body drains into the systemic circulation, and it may be the first sign of gastric cancer.³² Sister Mary Joseph nodule (named after a surgical assistant to Dr. William James Mayo) refers to a palpable mass at the umbilicus, generally resulting from metastasis of an abdominal malignancy.³³

SIGNS ON FURTHER STUDIES

Laboratory evaluation may show signs of poor oral intake and electrolyte abnormalities secondary to chronic nausea, vomiting, and dehydration, including hypochloremic metabolic alkalosis and hypokalemia.

The underlying cause of gastric outlet obstruction has major implications for treatment and prognosis and cannot be differentiated by clinical presentation alone.^1,9 Diagnosis is based on clinical features and radiologic or endoscopic evaluation consistent with gastric outlet obstruction.

Plain radiography may reveal an enlarged gastric bubble, and contrast studies may be useful to determine whether the obstruction is partial or complete, depending on whether the contrast passes into the small bowel.

Upper endoscopy is often needed to establish the diagnosis and cause. Emptying the stomach with a nasogastric tube is recommended before endoscopy to minimize the risk of aspiration during the procedure, and endotracheal intubation should be considered for airway protection.³⁴ Findings of gastric outlet obstruction on upper endoscopy include retained food and liquid. Endoscopic biopsy is important to differentiate between benign and malignant causes. For patients with malignancy, endoscopic ultrasonography is useful for diagnosis via tissue sampling with fine-needle aspiration and locoregional staging.³⁵

A strategy. Most patients whose clinical presentation suggests gastric outlet obstruction require cross-sectional radiologic imaging, upper endoscopy, or both.³⁶ CT is the preferred imaging study to evaluate for intestinal obstruction.^36,37 Patients with suspected complete obstruction or perforation should undergo CT before upper endoscopy. Oral contrast may interfere with endoscopy and should be avoided if endoscopy is planned. Additionally, giving oral contrast may worsen patient discomfort and increase the risk of nausea, vomiting, and aspiration.^36,37

Following radiographic evaluation, upper endoscopy can be performed after gastric decompression to identify the location and extent of the obstruction and to potentially provide a definitive diagnosis with biopsy.³⁶

DIFFERENTIATE FROM GASTROPARESIS

Gastroparesis is a chronic neuromuscular disorder characterized by delayed gastric emptying without mechanical obstruction.³⁸ The most common causes are diabetes, surgery, and idiopathy. Other causes include viral infection, connective tissue diseases, ischemia, infiltrative disorders, radiation, neurologic disorders, and paraneoplastic syndromes.^39,40

Gastric outlet obstruction and gastroparesis share clinical symptoms including nausea, vomiting, abdominal pain, early satiety, and weight loss and are important to differentiate.^36,38 Although abdominal pain may be present in both gastric outlet obstruction and gastroparesis, in gastroparesis it tends not to be the dominant symptom.⁴⁰

Gastric scintigraphy is most commonly used to objectively quantify delayed gastric emptying.³⁹ Upper endoscopy is imperative to exclude mechanical obstruction.³⁹

Initially, patients with signs and symptoms of gastric outlet obstruction should be given:

• Nothing by mouth (NPO)
• Intravenous fluids to correct volume depletion and electrolyte abnormalities
• A nasogastric tube for gastric decompression and symptom relief if symptoms persist despite being NPO
• A parenteral proton pump inhibitor, regardless of the cause of obstruction, to decrease gastric secretions⁴¹
• Medications for pain and nausea, if needed.

Definitive treatment of gastric outlet obstruction depends on the underlying cause, whether benign or malignant.

Management of benign gastric outlet obstruction

Symptoms of gastric outlet obstruction resolve spontaneously in about half of cases caused by acute peptic ulcer disease, as acute inflammation resolves.^9,22

Endoscopic dilation is an important option in patients with benign gastric outlet obstruction, including peptic ulcer disease. Peptic ulcer disease-induced gastric outlet obstruction can be safely treated with endoscopic balloon dilation. This treatment almost always relieves symptoms immediately; however, the long-term response has varied from 16% to 100%, and patients may require more than 1 dilation procedure.^25,42,43 The need for 2 or more dilation procedures may predict need for surgery.⁴⁴ Gastric outlet obstruction after caustic ingestion or endoscopic submucosal dissection may also respond to endoscopic balloon dilation.³⁶

Eradication of H pylori may be effective and lead to complete resolution of symptoms in patients with gastric outlet obstruction due to this infection.^45–47

NSAIDs should be discontinued in patients with peptic ulcer disease and gastric outlet obstruction. These drugs damage the gastrointestinal mucosa by inhibiting cyclo-oxygenase (COX) enzymes and decreasing synthesis of prostaglandins, which are important for mucosal defense.⁴⁸ Patients may be unaware of NSAIDs contained in over-the-counter medications and may have difficulty discontinuing NSAIDs taken for pain.⁴⁹

These drugs are an important cause of refractory peptic ulcer disease and can be detected by platelet COX activity testing, although this test is not widely available. In a study of patients with peptic ulcer disease without definite NSAID use or H pylori infection, up to one-third had evidence of surreptitious NSAID use as detected by platelet COX activity testing.⁵⁰ In another study,⁵¹ platelet COX activity testing discovered over 20% more aspirin users than clinical history alone.

Surgery for patients with benign gastric outlet obstruction is used only when medical management and endoscopic dilation fail. Ideally, surgery should relieve the obstruction and target the underlying cause, such as peptic ulcer disease. Laparoscopic surgery is generally preferred to open surgery because patients can resume oral intake sooner, have a shorter hospital stay, and have less intraoperative blood loss.⁵² The simplest surgical procedure to relieve obstruction is laparoscopic gastrojejunostomy.

Patients with gastric outlet obstruction and peptic ulcer disease warrant laparoscopic vagotomy and antrectomy or distal gastrectomy. This removes the obstruction and the stimulus for gastric secretion.⁵³ An alternative is vagotomy with a drainage procedure (pyloroplasty or gastrojejunostomy), which has a similar postoperative course and reduction in gastric acid secretion compared with antrectomy or distal gastrectomy.^53,54

Daily proton pump inhibitors can be used for patients with benign gastric outlet obstruction not associated with peptic ulcer disease or risk factors; for such cases, vagotomy is not required.

Management of malignant gastric outlet obstruction

Patients with malignant gastric outlet obstruction may have intractable nausea and abdominal pain secondary to retention of gastric contents. The major goal of therapy is to improve symptoms and restore tolerance of an oral diet. The short-term prognosis of malignant gastric outlet obstruction is poor, with a median survival of 3 to 4 months, as these patients often have unresectable disease.⁵⁵

Surgical bypass used to be the standard of care for palliation of malignant gastric obstruction, but that was before endoscopic stenting was developed.

Endoscopic stenting allows patients to resume oral intake and get out of the hospital sooner with fewer complications than with open surgical bypass. It may be a more appropriate option for palliation of symptoms in patients with malignant obstruction who have a poor prognosis and prefer a less invasive intervention.^55,56

Endoscopic duodenal stenting of malignant gastric outlet obstruction has a success rate of greater than 90%, and most patients can tolerate a mechanical soft diet afterward.³⁴ The procedure is usually performed with a 9-cm or 12-cm self-expanding duodenal stent, 22 mm in diameter, placed over a guide wire under endoscopic and fluoroscopic guidance (Figure 2). The stent is placed by removing the outer catheter, with distal-to-proximal stent deployment.

Patients who also have biliary obstruction may require biliary stent placement, which is generally performed before duodenal stenting. For patients with an endoscopic stent who develop biliary obstruction, endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography can be attempted with placement of a biliary stent; however, these patients may require biliary drain placement by percutaneous transhepatic cholangiography or by endoscopic ultrasonographically guided transduodenal or transgastric biliary drainage.

From 20% to 30% of patients require repeated endoscopic stent placement, although most patients die within several months after stenting.³⁴ Surgical options for patients who do not respond to endoscopic stenting include open or laparoscopic gastrojejunostomy.⁵⁵

Laparoscopic gastrojejunostomy may provide better long-term outcomes than duodenal stenting for patients with malignant gastric outlet obstruction and a life expectancy longer than a few months.

A 2017 retrospective study of 155 patients with gastric outlet obstruction secondary to unresectable gastric cancer suggested that those who underwent laparoscopic gastrojejunostomy had better oral intake, better tolerance of chemotherapy, and longer overall survival than those who underwent duodenal stenting. Postsurgical complications were more common in the laparoscopic gastrojejunostomy group (16%) than in the duodenal stenting group (0%).⁵⁷

In most of the studies comparing endoscopic stenting with surgery, the surgery was open gastrojejunostomy; there are limited data directly comparing stenting with laparoscopic gastrojejunostomy.⁵⁵ Endoscopic stenting is estimated to be significantly less costly than surgery, with a median cost of $12,000 less than gastrojejunostomy.⁵⁸ As an alternative to enteral stenting and surgical gastrojejunostomy, ultrasonography-guided endoscopic gastrojejunostomy or gastroenterostomy with placement of a lumen-apposing metal stent is emerging as a third treatment option and is under active investigation.⁵⁹

Patients with malignancy that is potentially curable by resection should undergo surgical evaluation before consideration of endoscopic stenting. For patients who are not candidates for surgery or endoscopic stenting, a percutaneous gastrostomy tube can be considered for gastric decompression and symptom relief.

CASE CONCLUDED

The patient underwent esophagogastroduodenoscopy with endoscopic ultrasonography for evaluation of her pancreatic mass. Before the procedure, she was intubated to minimize the risk of aspiration due to persistent nausea and retained gastric contents. A large submucosal mass was found in the duodenal bulb. Endoscopic ultrasonography showed a mass within the pancreatic head with pancreatic duct obstruction. Fine-needle aspiration biopsy was performed, and pathology study revealed pancreatic adenocarcinoma. The patient underwent stenting with a 22-mm by 12-cm WallFlex stent (Boston Scientific), which led to resolution of nausea and advancement to a mechanical soft diet on hospital discharge.

She was scheduled for follow-up in the outpatient clinic for treatment of pancreatic cancer.

A 72-year-old woman presents to the emergency department with progressive nausea and vomiting. One week earlier, she developed early satiety and nausea with vomiting after eating solid food. Three days later her symptoms progressed, and she became unable to take anything by mouth. The patient also experienced a 40-lb weight loss in the previous 3 months. She denies symptoms of abdominal pain, hematemesis, or melena. Her medical history includes cholecystectomy and type 2 diabetes mellitus, diagnosed 1 year ago. She has no family history of gastrointestinal malignancy. She says she smoked 1 pack a day in her 20s. She does not consume alcohol.

On physical examination, she is normotensive with a heart rate of 105 beats per minute. The oral mucosa is dry, and the abdomen is mildly distended and tender to palpation in the epigastrium. Laboratory evaluation reveals hypokalemia and metabolic alkalosis.

Computed tomography (CT) reveals a mass 3 cm by 4 cm in the pancreatic head. The mass has invaded the medial wall of the duodenum, with obstruction of the pancreatic and common bile ducts and extension into and occlusion of the superior mesenteric vein, with soft-tissue expansion around the superior mesenteric artery. CT also reveals retained stomach contents and an air-fluid level consistent with gastric outlet obstruction.

INTRINSIC OR EXTRINSIC BLOCKAGE

Gastric outlet obstruction, also called pyloric obstruction, is caused by intrinsic or extrinsic mechanical blockage of gastric emptying, generally in the distal stomach, pyloric channel, or duodenum, with associated symptoms of nausea, vomiting, abdominal pain, and early satiety. It is encountered in both the clinic and the hospital.

Here, we review the causes, diagnosis, and management of this disorder.

BENIGN AND MALIGNANT CAUSES

In a retrospective study of 76 patients hospitalized with gastric outlet obstruction between 2006 and 2015 at our institution,² 29 cases (38%) were due to malignancy and 47 (62%) were due to benign causes. Pancreatic adenocarcinoma accounted for 13 cases (17%), while gastric adenocarcinoma accounted for 5 cases (7%); less common malignant causes were cholangiocarcinoma, cancer of the ampulla of Vater, duodenal adenocarcinoma, hepatocellular carcinoma, and metastatic disease. Of the benign causes, the most common were peptic ulcer disease (13 cases, 17%) and postoperative strictures or adhesions (11 cases, 14%).

These numbers reflect general trends around the world.

Less gastric cancer, more pancreatic cancer

The last several decades have seen a trend toward more cases due to cancer and fewer due to benign causes.^3–14

In earlier studies in both developed and developing countries, gastric adenocarcinoma was the most common malignant cause of gastric outlet obstruction. Since then, it has become less common in Western countries, although it remains more common in Asia and Africa.^7–14 This trend likely reflects environmental factors, including decreased prevalence of Helicobacter pylori infection, a major risk factor for gastric cancer, in Western countries.^15–17

At the same time, pancreatic cancer is on the rise,¹⁶ and up to 20% of patients with pancreatic cancer develop gastric outlet obstruction.¹⁸ In a prospective observational study of 108 patients with malignant gastric outlet obstruction undergoing endoscopic stenting, pancreatic cancer was by far the most common malignancy, occurring in 54% of patients, followed by gastric cancer in 13%.¹⁹

Less peptic ulcer disease, but still common

Peptic ulcer disease used to account for up to 90% of cases of gastric outlet obstruction, and it is still the most common benign cause.

In 1990, gastric outlet obstruction was estimated to occur in 5% to 10% of all hospital admissions for ulcer-related complications, accounting for 2,000 operations annually.^20,21 Gastric outlet obstruction now occurs in fewer than 5% of patients with duodenal ulcer disease and fewer than 2% of patients with gastric ulcer disease.²²

Peptic ulcer disease remains an important cause of obstruction in countries with poor access to acid-suppressing drugs.²³

Gastric outlet obstruction occurs in both acute and chronic peptic ulcer disease. In acute peptic ulcer disease, tissue inflammation and edema result in mechanical obstruction. Chronic peptic ulcer disease results in tissue scarring and fibrosis with strictures.²⁰

Environmental factors, including improved diet, hygiene, physical activity, and the decreased prevalence of H pylori infection, also contribute to the decreased prevalence of peptic ulcer disease and its complications, including gastric outlet obstruction.³ The continued occurrence of peptic ulcer disease is associated with widespread use of low-dose aspirin and nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs), the most common causes of peptic ulcer disease in Western countries.^24,25

Other nonmalignant causes of gastric outlet obstruction are diverse and less common. They include caustic ingestion, postsurgical strictures, benign tumors of the gastrointestinal tract, Crohn disease, and pancreatic disorders including acute pancreatitis, pancreatic pseudocyst, chronic pancreatitis, and annular pancreas. Intramural duodenal hematoma may cause obstruction after blunt abdominal trauma, endoscopic biopsy, or gastrostomy tube migration, especially in the setting of a bleeding disorder or anticoagulation.²⁶

Tuberculosis should be suspected in countries in which it is common.⁷ In a prospective study of 64 patients with benign gastric outlet obstruction in India,²⁷ 16 (25%) had corrosive injury, 16 (25%) had tuberculosis, and 15 (23%) had peptic ulcer disease. Compared with patients with corrosive injury and peptic ulcer disease, patients with gastroduodenal tuberculosis had the best outcomes with appropriate treatment.

Other reported causes include Bouveret syndrome (an impacted gallstone in the proximal duodenum), phytobezoar, diaphragmatic hernia, gastric volvulus, and Ladd bands (peritoneal bands associated with intestinal malrotation).^7,28,29

Symptoms of gastric outlet obstruction include nausea, nonbilious vomiting, epigastric pain, early satiety, abdominal distention, and weight loss.

In our patients, the most common presenting symptoms were nausea and vomiting (80%), followed by abdominal pain (72%); weight loss (15%), abdominal distention (15%), and early satiety (9%) were less common.²

Patients with gastric outlet obstruction secondary to malignancy generally present with a shorter duration of symptoms than those with peptic ulcer disease and are more likely to be older.^8,13 Other conditions with an acute onset of symptoms include gastric polyp prolapse, percutaneous endoscopic gastrostomy tube migration, gastric volvulus, and gallstone impaction.

Patients with gastric outlet obstruction associated with peptic ulcer disease generally have a long-standing history of symptoms, including dyspepsia and weight loss over several years.⁴

SIGNS ON EXAMINATION

On examination, look for signs of chronic gastric obstruction and its consequences, such as malnutrition, cachexia, volume depletion, and dental erosions.

A succussion splash may suggest gastric outlet obstruction. This is elicited by rocking the patient back and forth by the hips or abdomen while listening over the stomach for a splash, which may be heard without a stethoscope. The test is considered positive if present 3 or more hours after drinking fluids and suggests retention of gastric materials.^30,31

In thin individuals, chronic gastric outlet obstruction makes the stomach dilate and hypertrophy, which may be evident by a palpably thickened stomach with visible gastric peristalsis.⁴

Other notable findings on physical examination may include a palpable abdominal mass, epigastric pain, or an abnormality suggestive of metastatic gastric cancer, such as an enlarged left supraclavicular lymph node (Virchow node) or periumbilical lymph node (Sister Mary Joseph nodule). The Virchow node is at the junction of the thoracic duct and the left subclavian vein where the lymphatic circulation from the body drains into the systemic circulation, and it may be the first sign of gastric cancer.³² Sister Mary Joseph nodule (named after a surgical assistant to Dr. William James Mayo) refers to a palpable mass at the umbilicus, generally resulting from metastasis of an abdominal malignancy.³³

SIGNS ON FURTHER STUDIES

Laboratory evaluation may show signs of poor oral intake and electrolyte abnormalities secondary to chronic nausea, vomiting, and dehydration, including hypochloremic metabolic alkalosis and hypokalemia.

The underlying cause of gastric outlet obstruction has major implications for treatment and prognosis and cannot be differentiated by clinical presentation alone.^1,9 Diagnosis is based on clinical features and radiologic or endoscopic evaluation consistent with gastric outlet obstruction.

Plain radiography may reveal an enlarged gastric bubble, and contrast studies may be useful to determine whether the obstruction is partial or complete, depending on whether the contrast passes into the small bowel.

Upper endoscopy is often needed to establish the diagnosis and cause. Emptying the stomach with a nasogastric tube is recommended before endoscopy to minimize the risk of aspiration during the procedure, and endotracheal intubation should be considered for airway protection.³⁴ Findings of gastric outlet obstruction on upper endoscopy include retained food and liquid. Endoscopic biopsy is important to differentiate between benign and malignant causes. For patients with malignancy, endoscopic ultrasonography is useful for diagnosis via tissue sampling with fine-needle aspiration and locoregional staging.³⁵

A strategy. Most patients whose clinical presentation suggests gastric outlet obstruction require cross-sectional radiologic imaging, upper endoscopy, or both.³⁶ CT is the preferred imaging study to evaluate for intestinal obstruction.^36,37 Patients with suspected complete obstruction or perforation should undergo CT before upper endoscopy. Oral contrast may interfere with endoscopy and should be avoided if endoscopy is planned. Additionally, giving oral contrast may worsen patient discomfort and increase the risk of nausea, vomiting, and aspiration.^36,37

Following radiographic evaluation, upper endoscopy can be performed after gastric decompression to identify the location and extent of the obstruction and to potentially provide a definitive diagnosis with biopsy.³⁶

DIFFERENTIATE FROM GASTROPARESIS

Gastroparesis is a chronic neuromuscular disorder characterized by delayed gastric emptying without mechanical obstruction.³⁸ The most common causes are diabetes, surgery, and idiopathy. Other causes include viral infection, connective tissue diseases, ischemia, infiltrative disorders, radiation, neurologic disorders, and paraneoplastic syndromes.^39,40

Gastric outlet obstruction and gastroparesis share clinical symptoms including nausea, vomiting, abdominal pain, early satiety, and weight loss and are important to differentiate.^36,38 Although abdominal pain may be present in both gastric outlet obstruction and gastroparesis, in gastroparesis it tends not to be the dominant symptom.⁴⁰

Gastric scintigraphy is most commonly used to objectively quantify delayed gastric emptying.³⁹ Upper endoscopy is imperative to exclude mechanical obstruction.³⁹

Initially, patients with signs and symptoms of gastric outlet obstruction should be given:

• Nothing by mouth (NPO)
• Intravenous fluids to correct volume depletion and electrolyte abnormalities
• A nasogastric tube for gastric decompression and symptom relief if symptoms persist despite being NPO
• A parenteral proton pump inhibitor, regardless of the cause of obstruction, to decrease gastric secretions⁴¹
• Medications for pain and nausea, if needed.

Definitive treatment of gastric outlet obstruction depends on the underlying cause, whether benign or malignant.

Management of benign gastric outlet obstruction

Symptoms of gastric outlet obstruction resolve spontaneously in about half of cases caused by acute peptic ulcer disease, as acute inflammation resolves.^9,22

Endoscopic dilation is an important option in patients with benign gastric outlet obstruction, including peptic ulcer disease. Peptic ulcer disease-induced gastric outlet obstruction can be safely treated with endoscopic balloon dilation. This treatment almost always relieves symptoms immediately; however, the long-term response has varied from 16% to 100%, and patients may require more than 1 dilation procedure.^25,42,43 The need for 2 or more dilation procedures may predict need for surgery.⁴⁴ Gastric outlet obstruction after caustic ingestion or endoscopic submucosal dissection may also respond to endoscopic balloon dilation.³⁶

Eradication of H pylori may be effective and lead to complete resolution of symptoms in patients with gastric outlet obstruction due to this infection.^45–47

NSAIDs should be discontinued in patients with peptic ulcer disease and gastric outlet obstruction. These drugs damage the gastrointestinal mucosa by inhibiting cyclo-oxygenase (COX) enzymes and decreasing synthesis of prostaglandins, which are important for mucosal defense.⁴⁸ Patients may be unaware of NSAIDs contained in over-the-counter medications and may have difficulty discontinuing NSAIDs taken for pain.⁴⁹

These drugs are an important cause of refractory peptic ulcer disease and can be detected by platelet COX activity testing, although this test is not widely available. In a study of patients with peptic ulcer disease without definite NSAID use or H pylori infection, up to one-third had evidence of surreptitious NSAID use as detected by platelet COX activity testing.⁵⁰ In another study,⁵¹ platelet COX activity testing discovered over 20% more aspirin users than clinical history alone.

Surgery for patients with benign gastric outlet obstruction is used only when medical management and endoscopic dilation fail. Ideally, surgery should relieve the obstruction and target the underlying cause, such as peptic ulcer disease. Laparoscopic surgery is generally preferred to open surgery because patients can resume oral intake sooner, have a shorter hospital stay, and have less intraoperative blood loss.⁵² The simplest surgical procedure to relieve obstruction is laparoscopic gastrojejunostomy.

Patients with gastric outlet obstruction and peptic ulcer disease warrant laparoscopic vagotomy and antrectomy or distal gastrectomy. This removes the obstruction and the stimulus for gastric secretion.⁵³ An alternative is vagotomy with a drainage procedure (pyloroplasty or gastrojejunostomy), which has a similar postoperative course and reduction in gastric acid secretion compared with antrectomy or distal gastrectomy.^53,54

Daily proton pump inhibitors can be used for patients with benign gastric outlet obstruction not associated with peptic ulcer disease or risk factors; for such cases, vagotomy is not required.

Management of malignant gastric outlet obstruction

Patients with malignant gastric outlet obstruction may have intractable nausea and abdominal pain secondary to retention of gastric contents. The major goal of therapy is to improve symptoms and restore tolerance of an oral diet. The short-term prognosis of malignant gastric outlet obstruction is poor, with a median survival of 3 to 4 months, as these patients often have unresectable disease.⁵⁵

Surgical bypass used to be the standard of care for palliation of malignant gastric obstruction, but that was before endoscopic stenting was developed.

Endoscopic stenting allows patients to resume oral intake and get out of the hospital sooner with fewer complications than with open surgical bypass. It may be a more appropriate option for palliation of symptoms in patients with malignant obstruction who have a poor prognosis and prefer a less invasive intervention.^55,56

Endoscopic duodenal stenting of malignant gastric outlet obstruction has a success rate of greater than 90%, and most patients can tolerate a mechanical soft diet afterward.³⁴ The procedure is usually performed with a 9-cm or 12-cm self-expanding duodenal stent, 22 mm in diameter, placed over a guide wire under endoscopic and fluoroscopic guidance (Figure 2). The stent is placed by removing the outer catheter, with distal-to-proximal stent deployment.

Patients who also have biliary obstruction may require biliary stent placement, which is generally performed before duodenal stenting. For patients with an endoscopic stent who develop biliary obstruction, endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography can be attempted with placement of a biliary stent; however, these patients may require biliary drain placement by percutaneous transhepatic cholangiography or by endoscopic ultrasonographically guided transduodenal or transgastric biliary drainage.

From 20% to 30% of patients require repeated endoscopic stent placement, although most patients die within several months after stenting.³⁴ Surgical options for patients who do not respond to endoscopic stenting include open or laparoscopic gastrojejunostomy.⁵⁵

Laparoscopic gastrojejunostomy may provide better long-term outcomes than duodenal stenting for patients with malignant gastric outlet obstruction and a life expectancy longer than a few months.

A 2017 retrospective study of 155 patients with gastric outlet obstruction secondary to unresectable gastric cancer suggested that those who underwent laparoscopic gastrojejunostomy had better oral intake, better tolerance of chemotherapy, and longer overall survival than those who underwent duodenal stenting. Postsurgical complications were more common in the laparoscopic gastrojejunostomy group (16%) than in the duodenal stenting group (0%).⁵⁷

In most of the studies comparing endoscopic stenting with surgery, the surgery was open gastrojejunostomy; there are limited data directly comparing stenting with laparoscopic gastrojejunostomy.⁵⁵ Endoscopic stenting is estimated to be significantly less costly than surgery, with a median cost of $12,000 less than gastrojejunostomy.⁵⁸ As an alternative to enteral stenting and surgical gastrojejunostomy, ultrasonography-guided endoscopic gastrojejunostomy or gastroenterostomy with placement of a lumen-apposing metal stent is emerging as a third treatment option and is under active investigation.⁵⁹

Patients with malignancy that is potentially curable by resection should undergo surgical evaluation before consideration of endoscopic stenting. For patients who are not candidates for surgery or endoscopic stenting, a percutaneous gastrostomy tube can be considered for gastric decompression and symptom relief.

CASE CONCLUDED

The patient underwent esophagogastroduodenoscopy with endoscopic ultrasonography for evaluation of her pancreatic mass. Before the procedure, she was intubated to minimize the risk of aspiration due to persistent nausea and retained gastric contents. A large submucosal mass was found in the duodenal bulb. Endoscopic ultrasonography showed a mass within the pancreatic head with pancreatic duct obstruction. Fine-needle aspiration biopsy was performed, and pathology study revealed pancreatic adenocarcinoma. The patient underwent stenting with a 22-mm by 12-cm WallFlex stent (Boston Scientific), which led to resolution of nausea and advancement to a mechanical soft diet on hospital discharge.

She was scheduled for follow-up in the outpatient clinic for treatment of pancreatic cancer.