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Alzheimer’s disease (AD) and dementia with Lewy bodies (DLB) are the first and second most common causes of neurodegenerative dementia, respectively.“New Alzheimer’s disease guidelines: Implications for clinicians,” Current Psychiatry, March 2012, p. 15-20; http://bit.ly/UNYikk.
The 2005 report of the DLB Consortium5 recognizes central, core, suggestive, and supportive features of DLB (Table 1).5,10 These features are considered in the context of other confounding clinical conditions and the timing of cognitive and motor symptoms. The revised DLB criteria5 require a central feature of progressive cognitive decline. “Probable DLB” is when a patient presents with 2 core features or 1 core feature and ≥1 suggestive features. A diagnosis of “possible DLB” requires 1 core feature or 1 suggestive feature in the presence of progressive cognitive decline.
Table 1
Diagnostic criteria for AD and DLB
| NIA-AA criteria for AD (2011)10 |
| Possible AD: Clinical and cognitive criteria (DSM-IV-TR) for AD are met and there is an absence of biomarkers to support the diagnosis or there is evidence of a secondary disorder that can cause dementia |
| Probable AD: Clinical and cognitive criteria for AD are met and there is documented progressive cognitive decline or abnormal biomarker(s) suggestive of AD or evidence of proven AD autosomal dominant genetic mutation (presenilin-1, presenilin-2, amyloid-β precursor protein) |
| Definite AD: Clinical criteria for probable AD are met and there is histopathologic evidence of the disorder |
| Revised clinical diagnostic criteria for DLB (2005)5 |
| Core features: Fluctuating cognition, recurrent visual hallucinations, soft motor features of parkinsonism |
| Suggestive features: REM sleep behavior disorder, severe antipsychotic sensitivity, decreased tracer uptake in striatum on SPECT dopamine transporter imaging or on myocardial scintigraphy with MIBG |
| Supportive features (common but lacking diagnostic specificity): repeated falls and syncope; transient, unexplained loss of consciousness; systematized delusions; hallucinations other than visual; relative preservation of medial temporal lobe on CT or MRI scan; decreased tracer uptake on SPECT or PET imaging in occipital regions; prominent slow waves on EEG with temporal lobe transient sharp waves |
| AD: Alzheimer’s disease; DLB: dementia with Lewy bodies; MIBG: metaiodobenzylguanidine; NIA-AA: National Institute on Aging and the Alzheimer’s Association; PET: positron emission tomography; REM: rapid eye movement; SPECT: single photon emission computed tomography |
Biomarkers for AD, but not DLB
The 2011 diagnostic criteria for AD incorporate biomarkers that can be measured in vivo and reflect speci?c features of disease-related pathophysiologic processes. Biomarkers for AD are divided into 2 categories:11
- amyloid-beta (Aβ) accumulation: abnormal tracer retention on amyloid positron emission topography (PET) imaging and low cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) Aβ42
- neuronal degeneration or injury: elevated CSF tau (total and phosphorylated tau), decreased ?uorodeoxyglucose uptake on PET in temporo-parietal cortices, and atrophy on structural MRI in the hippocampal and temporo-parietal regions.
No clinically applicable genotypic or CSF markers exist to support a DLB diagnosis, but there are many promising candidates, including elevated levels of CSF p-tau 181, CSF levels of alpha- and beta-synuclein,12 and CSF beta-glucocerebrosidase levels.13 PET mapping of brain acetylcholinesterase activity,14 123I-2β-carbomethoxy-3β- (4-iodophenyl)-N-(3-fluoropropyl)nortropane single photon emission computed tomography (SPECT) dopamine transporter (DaT) imaging15 and metaiodobenzylguanidine (MIBG) scintigraphy also are promising methods. DaT scan SPECT is FDA-approved for detecting loss of functional dopaminergic neuron terminals in the striatum and can differentiate between AD and DLB with a sensitivity and specificity of 78% to 88% and 94% to 100%, respectively.16 This test is covered by Medicare for differentiating AD and DLB.
Differences in presentation
Cognitive impairment. Contrary to the early memory impairment that characterizes AD, memory deficits in DLB usually appear later in the disease course.5 Patients with DLB manifest greater attentional, visuospatial, and executive impairments than those with AD, whereas AD causes more profound episodic (declarative) memory impairment than DLB. DLB patients show more preserved consolidation and storage of verbal information than AD patients because of less neuroanatomical and cholinergic compromise in the medial temporal lobe. There is no evidence of significant differences in remote memory, semantic memory, and language (naming and fluency).
Compromised attention in DLB may be the basis for fluctuating cognition, a characteristic of the disease. The greater attentional impairment and reaction time variability in DLB compared with AD is evident during complex tasks for attention and may be a function of the executive and visuospatial demands of the tasks.17
Executive functions critical to adaptive, goal-directed behavior are more impaired in DLB than AD. DLB patients are more susceptible to distraction and have difficulty engaging in a task and shifting from 1 task to another. This, together with a tendency for confabulation and perseveration, are signs of executive dysfunction.
Neuropsychiatric features. DLB patients are more likely than AD patients to exhibit psychiatric symptoms and have more functional impairment.18 In an analysis of autopsy-confirmed cases, hallucinations and delusions were more frequent with Lewy body pathology (75%) than AD (21%) at initial clinical evaluation.18 By the end stages of both illnesses, the degree of psychotic symptoms is comparable.19 Depression is common in DLB; whether base rates of depressed mood and major depression differ between DLB and AD is uncertain.20
Psychosis in AD can be induced by medication or delirium, or triggered by poor sensory perceptions. Psychotic symptoms occur more frequently during the moderate and advanced stages of AD, when patients present with visual hallucinations, delusions, or delusional misidentifications. As many as 10% to 20% of patients with AD experience hallucinations, typically visual. Delusions occur in 30% to 50% of AD patients, usually in the later stages of the disease. The most common delusional themes are infidelity, theft, and paranoia. Female sex is a risk factor for psychosis in AD. Delusions co-occur with aggression, anxiety, and aberrant motor behavior.
Visual hallucinations—mostly vivid, well-formed, false perceptions of insects, animals, or people—are the defining feature of DLB.21 Many patients recognize that they are experiencing visual hallucinations and can ignore them. DLB patients also may experience visual illusions, such as misperceiving household objects as living beings. Delusions—typically paranoid—are common among DLB patients, as are depression and anxiety.1 Agitation or aggressive behavior tends to occur late in the illness, if at all.
The causes of psychotic symptoms in DLB are not fully understood, but dopamine dysfunction likely is involved in hallucinations, delusions, and agitation, and serotonin dysfunction may be associated with depression and anxiety. Rapid eye movement (REM) sleep/wakefulness dysregulation, in which the dream imagery of REM sleep may occur during wakefulness, also has been proposed as a mechanism for visual hallucinations in DLB.22 In DLB, psychotic symptoms occur early and are a hallmark of this illness, whereas in AD they usually occur in the middle to late stages of the disease.
Motor symptoms. In AD, extrapyramidal symptoms (EPS) are common later in the disease, are strongly correlated with disease severity, and are a strong, independent predictor of depression severity.23 EPS are more common in DLB than in AD24 and DLB patients are at higher risk of developing EPS even with low doses of typical antipsychotics, compared with AD patients.25
Other symptoms. REM sleep behavior disorder (RBD) is characterized by enacting dreams—often violent—during REM sleep. RBD is common in DLB and many patients also have excessive daytime somnolence. Other sleep disorders in DLB include insomnia, obstructive sleep apnea, central sleep apnea, restless legs syndrome, and periodic limb movements during sleep.
In AD patients, common sleep behaviors include confusion in the early evening (“sundowning”) and frequent nighttime awakenings, often accompanied by wandering.26 Orthostatic hypotension, impotence, urinary incontinence, and constipation are common in DLB. Lack of insight concerning personal cognitive, mood, and behavioral state is highly prevalent in AD patients and more common than in DLB.
Diagnostic evaluation
Because there are no definitive clinical markers for DLB, diagnosis is based on a detailed clinical and family history from the patient and a reliable informant, as well as a physical, neurologic, and mental status examination that looks for associated noncognitive symptoms, and neuropsychological evaluation. Reasons DLB may be misdiagnosed include:
- Some “core” clinical features of DLB may not appear or may overlap with AD.
- Presence and severity of concurrent AD pathology in DLB may modify the clinical presentation, with decreased rates of hallucinations and parkinsonism and increased neurofibrillary tangles.
- Failure to reliably identify fluctuations—variations in cognition and arousal, such as periods of unresponsiveness while awake (“zoning out”), excessive daytime somnolence, and disorganized speech.27
Detecting and characterizing cognitive deficits in dementia patients using neuropsychological testing is important in establishing a clinical diagnosis, determining baseline levels of impairment, forming a prognosis, and initiating disease-specific treatments. Differences in neuropsychological findings in AD and DLB are outlined in Table 2.16,28-33 Several studies have suggested using these measures to differentiate patients with DLB from those with AD.20
Table 2
Diagnostic testing for Alzheimer’s disease and dementia with Lewy bodies
| Alzheimer’s disease | Dementia with Lewy bodies |
|---|---|
| Neuropsychological testing findings | |
| Relatively more impairment on verbal memory tasks, delayed recall, delayed recognition, and encoding and storing information.28 Dysfunction of episodic memory function | Relatively more impairment on attention or concentration, verbal fluency, visuoperceptual, visuoconstructive, visual memory tests, and frontal executive functions.28 Relatively preserved confrontation naming and verbal memory |
| MRI findings | |
| Diffuse cortical atrophy, relatively greater volume loss in hippocampus and medial temporal lobe structures (strong correlation with severity)29 | Mild generalized cerebral cortical atrophy with minimal hippocampal atrophy and relative preservation of medial temporal lobe structures30 |
| [18F]FDG PET | |
| Widespread metabolic deficits in neocortical association areas, with sparing of the basal ganglia, thalamus, cerebellum, primary sensory motor cortex, and visual cortex | Widespread cortical hypometabolism, more marked in primary visual and occipital association areas, and less severe in parietal, frontal, and anterior cingulate cortices.31 Severe cholinergic deafferentation of the neocortex, particularly in posterior cortical regions32 |
| Single photon emission computed tomography | |
| Parietotemporal hypoperfusion | Occipital hypoperfusion |
| 123I-FP-CIT SPECT (DaT scan) | |
| No significant loss of DaT | Low nigrostriatal terminal density of DaT caused by severe nigrostriatal degeneration16 |
| Myocardial scintigraphy with MIBG | |
| No significant change in MIBG uptake | Decreased MIBG uptake33 |
| 123I-FP-CIT: 123I-2β-carbomethoxy-3β-(4-iodophenyl)-N-(3-fluoropropyl)nortropane; DaT: dopamine transporter; FDG PET: [18F]-fluoro-d-glucose positron emission tomography; MIBG: metaiodobenzylguanidine; SPECT: single photon emission computed tomography | |
Evidence is insufficient to support using electroencephalographic and polysomnographic studies when initially evaluating patients with dementia. Brain CT or MRI are recommended as part of the initial evaluation of dementia patients to exclude treatable causes of dementia and help clarify the differential diagnosis. Occipital hypometabolism and hypoperfusion demonstrated on PET and SPECT imaging have high sensitivity and specificity for differentiating AD from DLB.
To diagnose DLB more consistently, look for core features of the disease, RBD, antipsychotic hypersensitivity, and decreased striatal binding at presynaptic DaT sites.15 Abnormal (low binding) DaT activity is the most reliable diagnostic marker for DLB.34 Myocardial scintigraphy with MIBG is sensitive to pathologic changes of DLB before clinical expression and could overcome the difficulties of using clinical criteria alone to identify patients with DLB.35 MIBG scintigraphy may be preferred to DaT scan because it is less expensive and its sensitivity and specificity to DLB are independent of the presence of parkinsonism.35
For an overview of pharmacotherapy options for patients with AD or DLB, see Box 2.
Pharmacotherapy options for patients with Alzheimer’s disease (AD) or dementia with Lewy bodies (DLB) include cholinesterase inhibitors, memantine, antipsychotics, and other agents.
Cholinesterase inhibitors. Donepezil, rivastigmine, and galantamine are FDA-approved for treating AD. Their efficacy appears to be similar, so the choice of agent is based largely on cost, patient tolerability, and physician experience.
No medications are FDA-approved for treating DLB. Neocortical cholinergic activity assessed by choline acetyltransferase levels is more severely depleted in DLB than in AD, and this deficit is correlated with the presence of visual hallucinations and global severity of cognitive impairment.a Therefore, drugs that enhance central cholinergic function offer a therapeutic approach for DLB; cognitive and hallucinatory symptoms are the anticipated targets. Multiple anecdotal reports, open-label studies,b,c and 1 randomized, placebo-controlled triald suggest that cholinesterase inhibitors are efficacious in DLB, with reported benefits in cognition, fluctuations, psychotic symptoms, and parkinsonian symptoms. A 20-week randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled multicenter studyd of patients with DLB found rivastigmine, 6 to 12 mg/d, was superior to placebo. Patients receiving rivastigmine exhibited significantly reduced anxiety, delusions, and hallucinations and significantly better performance on a computerized battery of neuropsychological tests, especially tasks that required sustained attention. Differences between rivastigmine and placebo disappeared after drug discontinuation.
Memantine is a noncompetitive antagonist of N-methyl-d-aspartate receptors that is effective in AD.e The possible involvement of glutamate in DLB has provided a rationale for treating DLB with memantine. Two randomized controlled trials in DLB found that patients treated with memantine for 24 weeks performed better on Clinical Global Impression of Change, but not on most other secondary outcome measures.f,g In both studies, memantine was well tolerated. However, other studies have noted worsening of delusions and hallucinations with memantine in DLB patients.h
Antipsychotics. Agitation is common in moderate and advanced AD. Atypical antipsychotics have been used with variable efficacy to treat agitation, but their use is associated with excess mortality. DLB patients pose a considerable therapeutic challenge because antipsychotics—the mainstay of treatment of psychosis and behavioral problems in most other disorders—can provoke severe, irreversible, and often fatal sensitivity reactions in this type of dementia.i A 2- to 3-fold increased mortality risk associated with antipsychotic sensitivity reactions in DLB is partly mediated via acute blockade of postsynaptic dopamine D2 receptors in the striatum. For severe and disabling psychosis, a trial of a cholinesterase inhibitor and/or lowering the dose of antiparkinsonian medication should be considered first. In urgent situations, small doses of an atypical antipsychotic that is least associated with parkinsonism side effects—such as quetiapine or aripiprazole—should be used.
Other treatments. Treatment of parkinsonian symptoms in DLB patients is similar to that for Parkinson’s disease, but the risk of psychotic symptoms in DLB warrants a conservative approach. Levodopa seems to be more effective than dopamine agonists and produces fewer side effects.j Rapid eye movement sleep behavior disorder often responds to low doses of clonazepam (0.25 to 1.5 mg). Depression and anxiety disorders are common in AD at all stages and their treatment is not fundamentally different than in geriatric patients without dementia. Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors and electroconvulsive therapy have been used successfully in depressed patients with AD or DLB.k,l
Disease-modifying treatments. Researchers are evaluating an array of antiamyloid and neuroprotective therapeutic approaches for AD based on the hypothesis that amyloid-beta protein plays a pivotal role in disease onset and progression. Interventions that reduce amyloid production, limit aggregation, or increase clearance may block the cascade of events comprising AD pathogenesis. Reducing tau hyperphosphorylation, limiting oxidation and excitotoxicity, and controlling inflammation also may be beneficial strategies. Potentially neuroprotective and restorative treatments such as neurotrophins, neurotrophic factor enhancers, and stem cell-related approaches also are being investigated.
There are no large-scale studies of disease-modifying treatments for DLB. Potential areas of research include the relationship between proteasome function and a-synuclein pathology, the role of beta-synuclein, and the impact of alterations to alpha-synuclein on its propensity to aggregate.
References
a. Ballard C, Ziabreva I, Perry R, et al. Differences in neuropathologic characteristics across the Lewy body dementia spectrum. Neurology. 2006;67(11):1931-1934.
b. Beversdorf DQ, Warner JL, Davis RA, et al. Donepezil in the treatment of dementia with lewy bodies. Am J Geriatr Psychiatry. 2004;12(5):542-544.
c. Edwards K, Royall D, Hershey L, et al. Efficacy and safety of galantamine in patients with dementia with Lewy bodies: a 24-week open-label study. Dement Geriatr Cogn Disord. 2007;23(6):401-405.
d. McKeith I, Del Ser T, Spano P, et al. Efficacy of rivastigmine in dementia with Lewy bodies: a randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled international study. Lancet. 2000;356(9247):2031-2036.
e. Tariot PN, Farlow MR, Grossberg GT, et al. Memantine treatment in patients with moderate to severe Alzheimer disease already receiving donepezil: a randomized controlled trial. JAMA. 2004;291(3):317-324.
f. Aarsland D, Ballard C, Walker Z, et al. Memantine in patients with Parkinson’s disease dementia or dementia with Lewy bodies: a double-blind, placebo-controlled, multicentre trial. Lancet Neurol. 2009;8(7):613-618.
g. Emre M, Tsolaki M, Bonuccelli U, et al. Memantine for patients with Parkinson’s disease dementia or dementia with Lewy bodies: a randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. Lancet Neurol. 2010;9(10):969-977.
h. Ridha BH, Josephs KA, Rossor MN. Delusions and hallucinations in dementia with Lewy bodies: worsening with memantine. Neurology. 2005;65(3):481-482.
i. McKeith I, Fairbairn A, Perry R, et al. Neuroleptic sensitivity in patients with senile dementia of Lewy body type. BMJ. 1992;305(6855):673-678.
j. Fernandez HH, Wu CK, Ott BR. Pharmacotherapy of dementia with Lewy bodies. Expert Opin Pharmacother. 2003;4(11):2027-2037.
k. Swartz M, Barak Y, Mirecki I, et al. Treating depression in Alzheimer’s disease: integration of differing guidelines. Int Psychogeriatr. 2000;12(3):353-358.
l. Takahashi S, Mizukami K, Yasuno F, et al. Depression associated with dementia with Lewy bodies (DLB) and the effect of somatotherapy. Psychogeriatrics. 2009;9(2):56-61.
Related Resources
- Hanyu H, Sato T, Hirao K, et al. Differences in clinical course between dementia with Lewy bodies and Alzheimer’s disease. Eur J Neurol. 2009;16(2):212-217.
- Walker Z, McKeith I, Rodda J, et al. Comparison of cognitive decline between dementia with Lewy bodies and Alzheimer’s disease: a cohort study. BMJ Open. 2012;2:e000380.
Drug Brand Names
- Aripiprazole • Abilify
- Clonazepam • Klonopin
- Donepezil • Aricept
- Galantamine • Razadyne, Reminyl
- Levodopa • Dopar, Larodopa
- Memantine • Namenda
- Quetiapine • Seroquel
- Rivastigmine • Exelon
Disclosure
Drs. Bishnoi and Manepalli report no financial relationship with any company whose products are mentioned in this article or with manufacturers of competing products.
Dr. Grossberg serves as a consultant to Forest, Janssen, Novartis, and Pfizer. His department receives research funding from Novartis, Janssen, and Pfizer.
1. McKeith IG, Galasko D, Kosaka K, et al. Consensus guidelines for the clinical and pathologic diagnosis of dementia with Lewy bodies (DLB): report of the consortium on DLB international workshop. Neurology. 1996;47(5):1113-1124.
2. Buracchio T, Arvanitakis Z, Gorbien M. Dementia with Lewy bodies: current concepts. Dement Geriatr Cogn Disord. 2005;20(5):306-320.
3. Fujishiro H, Iseki E, Higashi S, et al. Distribution of cerebral amyloid deposition and its relevance to clinical phenotype in Lewy body dementia. Neurosci Lett. 2010;486(1):19-23.
4. Kosaka K. Diffuse Lewy body disease. Neuropathology. 2000;20(suppl):S73-S78.
5. McKeith IG, Dickson DW, Lowe J, et al. Consortium on DLB. Diagnosis and management of dementia with Lewy bodies: third report of the DLB Consortium. Neurology. 2005;65(12):1863-1872.
6. Cummings JL, Cole G. Alzheimer disease. JAMA. 2002;287(18):2335-2338.
7. Zaccai J, McCracken C, Brayne C. A systematic review of prevalence and incidence studies of dementia with Lewy bodies. Age Ageing. 2005;34(6):561-566.
8. Bradshaw J, Saling M, Hopwood M, et al. Fluctuating cognition in dementia with Lewy bodies and Alzheimer’s disease is qualitatively distinct. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 2004;75(3):382-387.
9. Singleton AB, Wharton A, O’Brien KK, et al. Clinical and neuropathological correlates of apolipoprotein E genotype in dementia with Lewy bodies. Dement Geriatr Cogn Disord. 2002;14(4):167-175.
10. McKhann GM, Knopman DS, Chertkow H, et al. The diagnosis of dementia due to Alzheimer’s disease: recommendations from the National Institute on Aging-Alzheimer’s Association workgroups on diagnostic guidelines for Alzheimer’s disease. Alzheimers Dement. 2011;7(3):263-269.
11. Jack CR, Jr, Albert MS, Knopman DS, et al. Introduction to the recommendations from the National Institute on Aging-Alzheimer’s Association workgroups on diagnostic guidelines for Alzheimer’s disease. Alzheimers Dement. 2011;7(3):257-262.
12. Mollenhauer B, Cullen V, Kahn I, et al. Direct quantification of CSF alpha-synuclein by ELISA and first cross-sectional study in patients with neurodegeneration. Exp Neurol. 2008;213(2):315-325.
13. Parnetti L, Balducci C, Pierguidi L, et al. Cerebrospinal fluid beta-glucocerebrosidase activity is reduced in dementia with Lewy bodies. Neurobiol Dis. 2009;34(3):484-486.
14. Shimada H, Hirano S, Shinotoh H, et al. Mapping of brain acetylcholinesterase alterations in Lewy body disease by PET. Neurology. 2009;73(4):273-278.
15. McKeith I, O’Brien J, Walker Z, et al. Sensitivity and specificity of dopamine transporter imaging with 123I-FP-CIT SPECT in dementia with Lewy bodies: a phase III, multicentre study. Lancet Neurol. 2007;6(4):305-313.
16. Walker Z, Jaros E, Walker RW, et al. Dementia with Lewy bodies: a comparison of clinical diagnosis, FP-CIT single photon emission computed tomography imaging and autopsy. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 2007;78(11):1176-1181.
17. Bradshaw JM, Saling M, Anderson V, et al. Higher cortical deficits influence attentional processing in dementia with Lewy bodies, relative to patients with dementia of the Alzheimer’s type and controls. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 2006;77(10):1129-1135.
18. Weiner MF, Hynan LS, Parikh B, et al. Can Alzheimer’s disease and dementias with Lewy bodies be distinguished clinically? J Geriatr Psychiatry Neurol. 2003;16(4):245-250.
19. Stavitsky K, Brickman AM, Scarmeas N, et al. The progression of cognition, psychiatric symptoms, and functional abilities in dementia with Lewy bodies and Alzheimer disease. Arch Neurol. 2006;63(10):1450-1456.
20. Ferman TJ, Smith GE, Boeve BF, et al. Neuropsychological differentiation of dementia with Lewy bodies from normal aging and Alzheimer’s disease. Clin Neuropsychol. 2006;20(4):623-636.
21. McKeith IG, Perry EK, Perry RH. Report of the second dementia with Lewy body international workshop: diagnosis and treatment. Consortium on Dementia with Lewy Bodies. Neurology. 1999;53(5):902-905.
22. Boeve BF, Silber MH, Ferman TJ, et al. Association of REM sleep behavior disorder and neurodegenerative disease may reflect an underlying synucleinopathy. Mov Disord. 2001;16(4):622-630.
23. Portet F, Scarmeas N, Cosentino S, et al. Extrapyramidal signs before and after diagnosis of incident Alzheimer disease in a prospective population study. Arch Neurol. 2009;66(9):1120-1126.
24. McKeith I, Fairbairn A, Perry R, et al. Neuroleptic sensitivity in patients with senile dementia of Lewy body type. BMJ. 1992;305(6855):673-678.
25. Tarawneh R, Galvin JE. Distinguishing Lewy body dementias from Alzheimer’s disease. Expert Rev Neurother. 2007;7(11):1499-1516.
26. Ancoli-Israel S, Klauber MR, Gillin JC, et al. Sleep in non-institutionalized Alzheimer’s disease patients. Aging (Milano). 1994;6(6):451-458.
27. Ferman TJ, Smith GE, Boeve BF, et al. DLB fluctuations: specific features that reliably differentiate DLB from AD and normal aging. Neurology. 2004;62(2):181-187.
28. Salmon DP, Galasko D, Hansen LA, et al. Neuropsychological deficits associated with diffuse Lewy body disease. Brain Cogn. 1996;31(2):148-165.
29. Jack CR, Jr, Petersen RC, Xu Y, et al. Rates of hippocampal atrophy correlate with change in clinical status in aging and AD. Neurology. 2000;55(4):484-489.
30. Burton EJ, Barber R, Mukaetova-Ladinska EB, et al. Medial temporal lobe atrophy on MRI differentiates Alzheimer’s disease from dementia with Lewy bodies and vascular cognitive impairment: a prospective study with pathological verification of diagnosis. Brain. 2009;132(pt 1):195-203.
31. Ishii K, Soma T, Kono AK, et al. Comparison of regional brain volume and glucose metabolism between patients with mild dementia with lewy bodies and those with mild Alzheimer’s disease. J Nucl Med. 2007;48(5):704-711.
32. Klein JC, Eggers C, Kalbe E, et al. Neurotransmitter changes in dementia with Lewy bodies and Parkinson disease dementia in vivo. Neurology. 2010;74(11):885-892.
33. Fujishiro H, Nakamura S, Kitazawa M, et al. Early detection of dementia with Lewy bodies in patients with amnestic mild cognitive impairment using 123I-MIBG cardiac scintigraphy. J Neurol Sci. 2012;315(1-2):115-119.
34. O’Brien JT, McKeith IG, Walker Z, et al. Diagnostic accuracy of 123I-FP-CIT SPECT in possible dementia with Lewy bodies. Br J Psychiatry. 2009;194:34-39.
35. Yoshita M, Taki J, Yokoyama K, et al. Value of 123I-MIBG radioactivity in the differential diagnosis of DLB from AD. Neurology. 2006;66(12):1850-1854.
Discuss this article at www.facebook.com/CurrentPsychiatry
Alzheimer’s disease (AD) and dementia with Lewy bodies (DLB) are the first and second most common causes of neurodegenerative dementia, respectively.“New Alzheimer’s disease guidelines: Implications for clinicians,” Current Psychiatry, March 2012, p. 15-20; http://bit.ly/UNYikk.
The 2005 report of the DLB Consortium5 recognizes central, core, suggestive, and supportive features of DLB (Table 1).5,10 These features are considered in the context of other confounding clinical conditions and the timing of cognitive and motor symptoms. The revised DLB criteria5 require a central feature of progressive cognitive decline. “Probable DLB” is when a patient presents with 2 core features or 1 core feature and ≥1 suggestive features. A diagnosis of “possible DLB” requires 1 core feature or 1 suggestive feature in the presence of progressive cognitive decline.
Table 1
Diagnostic criteria for AD and DLB
| NIA-AA criteria for AD (2011)10 |
| Possible AD: Clinical and cognitive criteria (DSM-IV-TR) for AD are met and there is an absence of biomarkers to support the diagnosis or there is evidence of a secondary disorder that can cause dementia |
| Probable AD: Clinical and cognitive criteria for AD are met and there is documented progressive cognitive decline or abnormal biomarker(s) suggestive of AD or evidence of proven AD autosomal dominant genetic mutation (presenilin-1, presenilin-2, amyloid-β precursor protein) |
| Definite AD: Clinical criteria for probable AD are met and there is histopathologic evidence of the disorder |
| Revised clinical diagnostic criteria for DLB (2005)5 |
| Core features: Fluctuating cognition, recurrent visual hallucinations, soft motor features of parkinsonism |
| Suggestive features: REM sleep behavior disorder, severe antipsychotic sensitivity, decreased tracer uptake in striatum on SPECT dopamine transporter imaging or on myocardial scintigraphy with MIBG |
| Supportive features (common but lacking diagnostic specificity): repeated falls and syncope; transient, unexplained loss of consciousness; systematized delusions; hallucinations other than visual; relative preservation of medial temporal lobe on CT or MRI scan; decreased tracer uptake on SPECT or PET imaging in occipital regions; prominent slow waves on EEG with temporal lobe transient sharp waves |
| AD: Alzheimer’s disease; DLB: dementia with Lewy bodies; MIBG: metaiodobenzylguanidine; NIA-AA: National Institute on Aging and the Alzheimer’s Association; PET: positron emission tomography; REM: rapid eye movement; SPECT: single photon emission computed tomography |
Biomarkers for AD, but not DLB
The 2011 diagnostic criteria for AD incorporate biomarkers that can be measured in vivo and reflect speci?c features of disease-related pathophysiologic processes. Biomarkers for AD are divided into 2 categories:11
- amyloid-beta (Aβ) accumulation: abnormal tracer retention on amyloid positron emission topography (PET) imaging and low cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) Aβ42
- neuronal degeneration or injury: elevated CSF tau (total and phosphorylated tau), decreased ?uorodeoxyglucose uptake on PET in temporo-parietal cortices, and atrophy on structural MRI in the hippocampal and temporo-parietal regions.
No clinically applicable genotypic or CSF markers exist to support a DLB diagnosis, but there are many promising candidates, including elevated levels of CSF p-tau 181, CSF levels of alpha- and beta-synuclein,12 and CSF beta-glucocerebrosidase levels.13 PET mapping of brain acetylcholinesterase activity,14 123I-2β-carbomethoxy-3β- (4-iodophenyl)-N-(3-fluoropropyl)nortropane single photon emission computed tomography (SPECT) dopamine transporter (DaT) imaging15 and metaiodobenzylguanidine (MIBG) scintigraphy also are promising methods. DaT scan SPECT is FDA-approved for detecting loss of functional dopaminergic neuron terminals in the striatum and can differentiate between AD and DLB with a sensitivity and specificity of 78% to 88% and 94% to 100%, respectively.16 This test is covered by Medicare for differentiating AD and DLB.
Differences in presentation
Cognitive impairment. Contrary to the early memory impairment that characterizes AD, memory deficits in DLB usually appear later in the disease course.5 Patients with DLB manifest greater attentional, visuospatial, and executive impairments than those with AD, whereas AD causes more profound episodic (declarative) memory impairment than DLB. DLB patients show more preserved consolidation and storage of verbal information than AD patients because of less neuroanatomical and cholinergic compromise in the medial temporal lobe. There is no evidence of significant differences in remote memory, semantic memory, and language (naming and fluency).
Compromised attention in DLB may be the basis for fluctuating cognition, a characteristic of the disease. The greater attentional impairment and reaction time variability in DLB compared with AD is evident during complex tasks for attention and may be a function of the executive and visuospatial demands of the tasks.17
Executive functions critical to adaptive, goal-directed behavior are more impaired in DLB than AD. DLB patients are more susceptible to distraction and have difficulty engaging in a task and shifting from 1 task to another. This, together with a tendency for confabulation and perseveration, are signs of executive dysfunction.
Neuropsychiatric features. DLB patients are more likely than AD patients to exhibit psychiatric symptoms and have more functional impairment.18 In an analysis of autopsy-confirmed cases, hallucinations and delusions were more frequent with Lewy body pathology (75%) than AD (21%) at initial clinical evaluation.18 By the end stages of both illnesses, the degree of psychotic symptoms is comparable.19 Depression is common in DLB; whether base rates of depressed mood and major depression differ between DLB and AD is uncertain.20
Psychosis in AD can be induced by medication or delirium, or triggered by poor sensory perceptions. Psychotic symptoms occur more frequently during the moderate and advanced stages of AD, when patients present with visual hallucinations, delusions, or delusional misidentifications. As many as 10% to 20% of patients with AD experience hallucinations, typically visual. Delusions occur in 30% to 50% of AD patients, usually in the later stages of the disease. The most common delusional themes are infidelity, theft, and paranoia. Female sex is a risk factor for psychosis in AD. Delusions co-occur with aggression, anxiety, and aberrant motor behavior.
Visual hallucinations—mostly vivid, well-formed, false perceptions of insects, animals, or people—are the defining feature of DLB.21 Many patients recognize that they are experiencing visual hallucinations and can ignore them. DLB patients also may experience visual illusions, such as misperceiving household objects as living beings. Delusions—typically paranoid—are common among DLB patients, as are depression and anxiety.1 Agitation or aggressive behavior tends to occur late in the illness, if at all.
The causes of psychotic symptoms in DLB are not fully understood, but dopamine dysfunction likely is involved in hallucinations, delusions, and agitation, and serotonin dysfunction may be associated with depression and anxiety. Rapid eye movement (REM) sleep/wakefulness dysregulation, in which the dream imagery of REM sleep may occur during wakefulness, also has been proposed as a mechanism for visual hallucinations in DLB.22 In DLB, psychotic symptoms occur early and are a hallmark of this illness, whereas in AD they usually occur in the middle to late stages of the disease.
Motor symptoms. In AD, extrapyramidal symptoms (EPS) are common later in the disease, are strongly correlated with disease severity, and are a strong, independent predictor of depression severity.23 EPS are more common in DLB than in AD24 and DLB patients are at higher risk of developing EPS even with low doses of typical antipsychotics, compared with AD patients.25
Other symptoms. REM sleep behavior disorder (RBD) is characterized by enacting dreams—often violent—during REM sleep. RBD is common in DLB and many patients also have excessive daytime somnolence. Other sleep disorders in DLB include insomnia, obstructive sleep apnea, central sleep apnea, restless legs syndrome, and periodic limb movements during sleep.
In AD patients, common sleep behaviors include confusion in the early evening (“sundowning”) and frequent nighttime awakenings, often accompanied by wandering.26 Orthostatic hypotension, impotence, urinary incontinence, and constipation are common in DLB. Lack of insight concerning personal cognitive, mood, and behavioral state is highly prevalent in AD patients and more common than in DLB.
Diagnostic evaluation
Because there are no definitive clinical markers for DLB, diagnosis is based on a detailed clinical and family history from the patient and a reliable informant, as well as a physical, neurologic, and mental status examination that looks for associated noncognitive symptoms, and neuropsychological evaluation. Reasons DLB may be misdiagnosed include:
- Some “core” clinical features of DLB may not appear or may overlap with AD.
- Presence and severity of concurrent AD pathology in DLB may modify the clinical presentation, with decreased rates of hallucinations and parkinsonism and increased neurofibrillary tangles.
- Failure to reliably identify fluctuations—variations in cognition and arousal, such as periods of unresponsiveness while awake (“zoning out”), excessive daytime somnolence, and disorganized speech.27
Detecting and characterizing cognitive deficits in dementia patients using neuropsychological testing is important in establishing a clinical diagnosis, determining baseline levels of impairment, forming a prognosis, and initiating disease-specific treatments. Differences in neuropsychological findings in AD and DLB are outlined in Table 2.16,28-33 Several studies have suggested using these measures to differentiate patients with DLB from those with AD.20
Table 2
Diagnostic testing for Alzheimer’s disease and dementia with Lewy bodies
| Alzheimer’s disease | Dementia with Lewy bodies |
|---|---|
| Neuropsychological testing findings | |
| Relatively more impairment on verbal memory tasks, delayed recall, delayed recognition, and encoding and storing information.28 Dysfunction of episodic memory function | Relatively more impairment on attention or concentration, verbal fluency, visuoperceptual, visuoconstructive, visual memory tests, and frontal executive functions.28 Relatively preserved confrontation naming and verbal memory |
| MRI findings | |
| Diffuse cortical atrophy, relatively greater volume loss in hippocampus and medial temporal lobe structures (strong correlation with severity)29 | Mild generalized cerebral cortical atrophy with minimal hippocampal atrophy and relative preservation of medial temporal lobe structures30 |
| [18F]FDG PET | |
| Widespread metabolic deficits in neocortical association areas, with sparing of the basal ganglia, thalamus, cerebellum, primary sensory motor cortex, and visual cortex | Widespread cortical hypometabolism, more marked in primary visual and occipital association areas, and less severe in parietal, frontal, and anterior cingulate cortices.31 Severe cholinergic deafferentation of the neocortex, particularly in posterior cortical regions32 |
| Single photon emission computed tomography | |
| Parietotemporal hypoperfusion | Occipital hypoperfusion |
| 123I-FP-CIT SPECT (DaT scan) | |
| No significant loss of DaT | Low nigrostriatal terminal density of DaT caused by severe nigrostriatal degeneration16 |
| Myocardial scintigraphy with MIBG | |
| No significant change in MIBG uptake | Decreased MIBG uptake33 |
| 123I-FP-CIT: 123I-2β-carbomethoxy-3β-(4-iodophenyl)-N-(3-fluoropropyl)nortropane; DaT: dopamine transporter; FDG PET: [18F]-fluoro-d-glucose positron emission tomography; MIBG: metaiodobenzylguanidine; SPECT: single photon emission computed tomography | |
Evidence is insufficient to support using electroencephalographic and polysomnographic studies when initially evaluating patients with dementia. Brain CT or MRI are recommended as part of the initial evaluation of dementia patients to exclude treatable causes of dementia and help clarify the differential diagnosis. Occipital hypometabolism and hypoperfusion demonstrated on PET and SPECT imaging have high sensitivity and specificity for differentiating AD from DLB.
To diagnose DLB more consistently, look for core features of the disease, RBD, antipsychotic hypersensitivity, and decreased striatal binding at presynaptic DaT sites.15 Abnormal (low binding) DaT activity is the most reliable diagnostic marker for DLB.34 Myocardial scintigraphy with MIBG is sensitive to pathologic changes of DLB before clinical expression and could overcome the difficulties of using clinical criteria alone to identify patients with DLB.35 MIBG scintigraphy may be preferred to DaT scan because it is less expensive and its sensitivity and specificity to DLB are independent of the presence of parkinsonism.35
For an overview of pharmacotherapy options for patients with AD or DLB, see Box 2.
Pharmacotherapy options for patients with Alzheimer’s disease (AD) or dementia with Lewy bodies (DLB) include cholinesterase inhibitors, memantine, antipsychotics, and other agents.
Cholinesterase inhibitors. Donepezil, rivastigmine, and galantamine are FDA-approved for treating AD. Their efficacy appears to be similar, so the choice of agent is based largely on cost, patient tolerability, and physician experience.
No medications are FDA-approved for treating DLB. Neocortical cholinergic activity assessed by choline acetyltransferase levels is more severely depleted in DLB than in AD, and this deficit is correlated with the presence of visual hallucinations and global severity of cognitive impairment.a Therefore, drugs that enhance central cholinergic function offer a therapeutic approach for DLB; cognitive and hallucinatory symptoms are the anticipated targets. Multiple anecdotal reports, open-label studies,b,c and 1 randomized, placebo-controlled triald suggest that cholinesterase inhibitors are efficacious in DLB, with reported benefits in cognition, fluctuations, psychotic symptoms, and parkinsonian symptoms. A 20-week randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled multicenter studyd of patients with DLB found rivastigmine, 6 to 12 mg/d, was superior to placebo. Patients receiving rivastigmine exhibited significantly reduced anxiety, delusions, and hallucinations and significantly better performance on a computerized battery of neuropsychological tests, especially tasks that required sustained attention. Differences between rivastigmine and placebo disappeared after drug discontinuation.
Memantine is a noncompetitive antagonist of N-methyl-d-aspartate receptors that is effective in AD.e The possible involvement of glutamate in DLB has provided a rationale for treating DLB with memantine. Two randomized controlled trials in DLB found that patients treated with memantine for 24 weeks performed better on Clinical Global Impression of Change, but not on most other secondary outcome measures.f,g In both studies, memantine was well tolerated. However, other studies have noted worsening of delusions and hallucinations with memantine in DLB patients.h
Antipsychotics. Agitation is common in moderate and advanced AD. Atypical antipsychotics have been used with variable efficacy to treat agitation, but their use is associated with excess mortality. DLB patients pose a considerable therapeutic challenge because antipsychotics—the mainstay of treatment of psychosis and behavioral problems in most other disorders—can provoke severe, irreversible, and often fatal sensitivity reactions in this type of dementia.i A 2- to 3-fold increased mortality risk associated with antipsychotic sensitivity reactions in DLB is partly mediated via acute blockade of postsynaptic dopamine D2 receptors in the striatum. For severe and disabling psychosis, a trial of a cholinesterase inhibitor and/or lowering the dose of antiparkinsonian medication should be considered first. In urgent situations, small doses of an atypical antipsychotic that is least associated with parkinsonism side effects—such as quetiapine or aripiprazole—should be used.
Other treatments. Treatment of parkinsonian symptoms in DLB patients is similar to that for Parkinson’s disease, but the risk of psychotic symptoms in DLB warrants a conservative approach. Levodopa seems to be more effective than dopamine agonists and produces fewer side effects.j Rapid eye movement sleep behavior disorder often responds to low doses of clonazepam (0.25 to 1.5 mg). Depression and anxiety disorders are common in AD at all stages and their treatment is not fundamentally different than in geriatric patients without dementia. Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors and electroconvulsive therapy have been used successfully in depressed patients with AD or DLB.k,l
Disease-modifying treatments. Researchers are evaluating an array of antiamyloid and neuroprotective therapeutic approaches for AD based on the hypothesis that amyloid-beta protein plays a pivotal role in disease onset and progression. Interventions that reduce amyloid production, limit aggregation, or increase clearance may block the cascade of events comprising AD pathogenesis. Reducing tau hyperphosphorylation, limiting oxidation and excitotoxicity, and controlling inflammation also may be beneficial strategies. Potentially neuroprotective and restorative treatments such as neurotrophins, neurotrophic factor enhancers, and stem cell-related approaches also are being investigated.
There are no large-scale studies of disease-modifying treatments for DLB. Potential areas of research include the relationship between proteasome function and a-synuclein pathology, the role of beta-synuclein, and the impact of alterations to alpha-synuclein on its propensity to aggregate.
References
a. Ballard C, Ziabreva I, Perry R, et al. Differences in neuropathologic characteristics across the Lewy body dementia spectrum. Neurology. 2006;67(11):1931-1934.
b. Beversdorf DQ, Warner JL, Davis RA, et al. Donepezil in the treatment of dementia with lewy bodies. Am J Geriatr Psychiatry. 2004;12(5):542-544.
c. Edwards K, Royall D, Hershey L, et al. Efficacy and safety of galantamine in patients with dementia with Lewy bodies: a 24-week open-label study. Dement Geriatr Cogn Disord. 2007;23(6):401-405.
d. McKeith I, Del Ser T, Spano P, et al. Efficacy of rivastigmine in dementia with Lewy bodies: a randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled international study. Lancet. 2000;356(9247):2031-2036.
e. Tariot PN, Farlow MR, Grossberg GT, et al. Memantine treatment in patients with moderate to severe Alzheimer disease already receiving donepezil: a randomized controlled trial. JAMA. 2004;291(3):317-324.
f. Aarsland D, Ballard C, Walker Z, et al. Memantine in patients with Parkinson’s disease dementia or dementia with Lewy bodies: a double-blind, placebo-controlled, multicentre trial. Lancet Neurol. 2009;8(7):613-618.
g. Emre M, Tsolaki M, Bonuccelli U, et al. Memantine for patients with Parkinson’s disease dementia or dementia with Lewy bodies: a randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. Lancet Neurol. 2010;9(10):969-977.
h. Ridha BH, Josephs KA, Rossor MN. Delusions and hallucinations in dementia with Lewy bodies: worsening with memantine. Neurology. 2005;65(3):481-482.
i. McKeith I, Fairbairn A, Perry R, et al. Neuroleptic sensitivity in patients with senile dementia of Lewy body type. BMJ. 1992;305(6855):673-678.
j. Fernandez HH, Wu CK, Ott BR. Pharmacotherapy of dementia with Lewy bodies. Expert Opin Pharmacother. 2003;4(11):2027-2037.
k. Swartz M, Barak Y, Mirecki I, et al. Treating depression in Alzheimer’s disease: integration of differing guidelines. Int Psychogeriatr. 2000;12(3):353-358.
l. Takahashi S, Mizukami K, Yasuno F, et al. Depression associated with dementia with Lewy bodies (DLB) and the effect of somatotherapy. Psychogeriatrics. 2009;9(2):56-61.
Related Resources
- Hanyu H, Sato T, Hirao K, et al. Differences in clinical course between dementia with Lewy bodies and Alzheimer’s disease. Eur J Neurol. 2009;16(2):212-217.
- Walker Z, McKeith I, Rodda J, et al. Comparison of cognitive decline between dementia with Lewy bodies and Alzheimer’s disease: a cohort study. BMJ Open. 2012;2:e000380.
Drug Brand Names
- Aripiprazole • Abilify
- Clonazepam • Klonopin
- Donepezil • Aricept
- Galantamine • Razadyne, Reminyl
- Levodopa • Dopar, Larodopa
- Memantine • Namenda
- Quetiapine • Seroquel
- Rivastigmine • Exelon
Disclosure
Drs. Bishnoi and Manepalli report no financial relationship with any company whose products are mentioned in this article or with manufacturers of competing products.
Dr. Grossberg serves as a consultant to Forest, Janssen, Novartis, and Pfizer. His department receives research funding from Novartis, Janssen, and Pfizer.
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Alzheimer’s disease (AD) and dementia with Lewy bodies (DLB) are the first and second most common causes of neurodegenerative dementia, respectively.“New Alzheimer’s disease guidelines: Implications for clinicians,” Current Psychiatry, March 2012, p. 15-20; http://bit.ly/UNYikk.
The 2005 report of the DLB Consortium5 recognizes central, core, suggestive, and supportive features of DLB (Table 1).5,10 These features are considered in the context of other confounding clinical conditions and the timing of cognitive and motor symptoms. The revised DLB criteria5 require a central feature of progressive cognitive decline. “Probable DLB” is when a patient presents with 2 core features or 1 core feature and ≥1 suggestive features. A diagnosis of “possible DLB” requires 1 core feature or 1 suggestive feature in the presence of progressive cognitive decline.
Table 1
Diagnostic criteria for AD and DLB
| NIA-AA criteria for AD (2011)10 |
| Possible AD: Clinical and cognitive criteria (DSM-IV-TR) for AD are met and there is an absence of biomarkers to support the diagnosis or there is evidence of a secondary disorder that can cause dementia |
| Probable AD: Clinical and cognitive criteria for AD are met and there is documented progressive cognitive decline or abnormal biomarker(s) suggestive of AD or evidence of proven AD autosomal dominant genetic mutation (presenilin-1, presenilin-2, amyloid-β precursor protein) |
| Definite AD: Clinical criteria for probable AD are met and there is histopathologic evidence of the disorder |
| Revised clinical diagnostic criteria for DLB (2005)5 |
| Core features: Fluctuating cognition, recurrent visual hallucinations, soft motor features of parkinsonism |
| Suggestive features: REM sleep behavior disorder, severe antipsychotic sensitivity, decreased tracer uptake in striatum on SPECT dopamine transporter imaging or on myocardial scintigraphy with MIBG |
| Supportive features (common but lacking diagnostic specificity): repeated falls and syncope; transient, unexplained loss of consciousness; systematized delusions; hallucinations other than visual; relative preservation of medial temporal lobe on CT or MRI scan; decreased tracer uptake on SPECT or PET imaging in occipital regions; prominent slow waves on EEG with temporal lobe transient sharp waves |
| AD: Alzheimer’s disease; DLB: dementia with Lewy bodies; MIBG: metaiodobenzylguanidine; NIA-AA: National Institute on Aging and the Alzheimer’s Association; PET: positron emission tomography; REM: rapid eye movement; SPECT: single photon emission computed tomography |
Biomarkers for AD, but not DLB
The 2011 diagnostic criteria for AD incorporate biomarkers that can be measured in vivo and reflect speci?c features of disease-related pathophysiologic processes. Biomarkers for AD are divided into 2 categories:11
- amyloid-beta (Aβ) accumulation: abnormal tracer retention on amyloid positron emission topography (PET) imaging and low cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) Aβ42
- neuronal degeneration or injury: elevated CSF tau (total and phosphorylated tau), decreased ?uorodeoxyglucose uptake on PET in temporo-parietal cortices, and atrophy on structural MRI in the hippocampal and temporo-parietal regions.
No clinically applicable genotypic or CSF markers exist to support a DLB diagnosis, but there are many promising candidates, including elevated levels of CSF p-tau 181, CSF levels of alpha- and beta-synuclein,12 and CSF beta-glucocerebrosidase levels.13 PET mapping of brain acetylcholinesterase activity,14 123I-2β-carbomethoxy-3β- (4-iodophenyl)-N-(3-fluoropropyl)nortropane single photon emission computed tomography (SPECT) dopamine transporter (DaT) imaging15 and metaiodobenzylguanidine (MIBG) scintigraphy also are promising methods. DaT scan SPECT is FDA-approved for detecting loss of functional dopaminergic neuron terminals in the striatum and can differentiate between AD and DLB with a sensitivity and specificity of 78% to 88% and 94% to 100%, respectively.16 This test is covered by Medicare for differentiating AD and DLB.
Differences in presentation
Cognitive impairment. Contrary to the early memory impairment that characterizes AD, memory deficits in DLB usually appear later in the disease course.5 Patients with DLB manifest greater attentional, visuospatial, and executive impairments than those with AD, whereas AD causes more profound episodic (declarative) memory impairment than DLB. DLB patients show more preserved consolidation and storage of verbal information than AD patients because of less neuroanatomical and cholinergic compromise in the medial temporal lobe. There is no evidence of significant differences in remote memory, semantic memory, and language (naming and fluency).
Compromised attention in DLB may be the basis for fluctuating cognition, a characteristic of the disease. The greater attentional impairment and reaction time variability in DLB compared with AD is evident during complex tasks for attention and may be a function of the executive and visuospatial demands of the tasks.17
Executive functions critical to adaptive, goal-directed behavior are more impaired in DLB than AD. DLB patients are more susceptible to distraction and have difficulty engaging in a task and shifting from 1 task to another. This, together with a tendency for confabulation and perseveration, are signs of executive dysfunction.
Neuropsychiatric features. DLB patients are more likely than AD patients to exhibit psychiatric symptoms and have more functional impairment.18 In an analysis of autopsy-confirmed cases, hallucinations and delusions were more frequent with Lewy body pathology (75%) than AD (21%) at initial clinical evaluation.18 By the end stages of both illnesses, the degree of psychotic symptoms is comparable.19 Depression is common in DLB; whether base rates of depressed mood and major depression differ between DLB and AD is uncertain.20
Psychosis in AD can be induced by medication or delirium, or triggered by poor sensory perceptions. Psychotic symptoms occur more frequently during the moderate and advanced stages of AD, when patients present with visual hallucinations, delusions, or delusional misidentifications. As many as 10% to 20% of patients with AD experience hallucinations, typically visual. Delusions occur in 30% to 50% of AD patients, usually in the later stages of the disease. The most common delusional themes are infidelity, theft, and paranoia. Female sex is a risk factor for psychosis in AD. Delusions co-occur with aggression, anxiety, and aberrant motor behavior.
Visual hallucinations—mostly vivid, well-formed, false perceptions of insects, animals, or people—are the defining feature of DLB.21 Many patients recognize that they are experiencing visual hallucinations and can ignore them. DLB patients also may experience visual illusions, such as misperceiving household objects as living beings. Delusions—typically paranoid—are common among DLB patients, as are depression and anxiety.1 Agitation or aggressive behavior tends to occur late in the illness, if at all.
The causes of psychotic symptoms in DLB are not fully understood, but dopamine dysfunction likely is involved in hallucinations, delusions, and agitation, and serotonin dysfunction may be associated with depression and anxiety. Rapid eye movement (REM) sleep/wakefulness dysregulation, in which the dream imagery of REM sleep may occur during wakefulness, also has been proposed as a mechanism for visual hallucinations in DLB.22 In DLB, psychotic symptoms occur early and are a hallmark of this illness, whereas in AD they usually occur in the middle to late stages of the disease.
Motor symptoms. In AD, extrapyramidal symptoms (EPS) are common later in the disease, are strongly correlated with disease severity, and are a strong, independent predictor of depression severity.23 EPS are more common in DLB than in AD24 and DLB patients are at higher risk of developing EPS even with low doses of typical antipsychotics, compared with AD patients.25
Other symptoms. REM sleep behavior disorder (RBD) is characterized by enacting dreams—often violent—during REM sleep. RBD is common in DLB and many patients also have excessive daytime somnolence. Other sleep disorders in DLB include insomnia, obstructive sleep apnea, central sleep apnea, restless legs syndrome, and periodic limb movements during sleep.
In AD patients, common sleep behaviors include confusion in the early evening (“sundowning”) and frequent nighttime awakenings, often accompanied by wandering.26 Orthostatic hypotension, impotence, urinary incontinence, and constipation are common in DLB. Lack of insight concerning personal cognitive, mood, and behavioral state is highly prevalent in AD patients and more common than in DLB.
Diagnostic evaluation
Because there are no definitive clinical markers for DLB, diagnosis is based on a detailed clinical and family history from the patient and a reliable informant, as well as a physical, neurologic, and mental status examination that looks for associated noncognitive symptoms, and neuropsychological evaluation. Reasons DLB may be misdiagnosed include:
- Some “core” clinical features of DLB may not appear or may overlap with AD.
- Presence and severity of concurrent AD pathology in DLB may modify the clinical presentation, with decreased rates of hallucinations and parkinsonism and increased neurofibrillary tangles.
- Failure to reliably identify fluctuations—variations in cognition and arousal, such as periods of unresponsiveness while awake (“zoning out”), excessive daytime somnolence, and disorganized speech.27
Detecting and characterizing cognitive deficits in dementia patients using neuropsychological testing is important in establishing a clinical diagnosis, determining baseline levels of impairment, forming a prognosis, and initiating disease-specific treatments. Differences in neuropsychological findings in AD and DLB are outlined in Table 2.16,28-33 Several studies have suggested using these measures to differentiate patients with DLB from those with AD.20
Table 2
Diagnostic testing for Alzheimer’s disease and dementia with Lewy bodies
| Alzheimer’s disease | Dementia with Lewy bodies |
|---|---|
| Neuropsychological testing findings | |
| Relatively more impairment on verbal memory tasks, delayed recall, delayed recognition, and encoding and storing information.28 Dysfunction of episodic memory function | Relatively more impairment on attention or concentration, verbal fluency, visuoperceptual, visuoconstructive, visual memory tests, and frontal executive functions.28 Relatively preserved confrontation naming and verbal memory |
| MRI findings | |
| Diffuse cortical atrophy, relatively greater volume loss in hippocampus and medial temporal lobe structures (strong correlation with severity)29 | Mild generalized cerebral cortical atrophy with minimal hippocampal atrophy and relative preservation of medial temporal lobe structures30 |
| [18F]FDG PET | |
| Widespread metabolic deficits in neocortical association areas, with sparing of the basal ganglia, thalamus, cerebellum, primary sensory motor cortex, and visual cortex | Widespread cortical hypometabolism, more marked in primary visual and occipital association areas, and less severe in parietal, frontal, and anterior cingulate cortices.31 Severe cholinergic deafferentation of the neocortex, particularly in posterior cortical regions32 |
| Single photon emission computed tomography | |
| Parietotemporal hypoperfusion | Occipital hypoperfusion |
| 123I-FP-CIT SPECT (DaT scan) | |
| No significant loss of DaT | Low nigrostriatal terminal density of DaT caused by severe nigrostriatal degeneration16 |
| Myocardial scintigraphy with MIBG | |
| No significant change in MIBG uptake | Decreased MIBG uptake33 |
| 123I-FP-CIT: 123I-2β-carbomethoxy-3β-(4-iodophenyl)-N-(3-fluoropropyl)nortropane; DaT: dopamine transporter; FDG PET: [18F]-fluoro-d-glucose positron emission tomography; MIBG: metaiodobenzylguanidine; SPECT: single photon emission computed tomography | |
Evidence is insufficient to support using electroencephalographic and polysomnographic studies when initially evaluating patients with dementia. Brain CT or MRI are recommended as part of the initial evaluation of dementia patients to exclude treatable causes of dementia and help clarify the differential diagnosis. Occipital hypometabolism and hypoperfusion demonstrated on PET and SPECT imaging have high sensitivity and specificity for differentiating AD from DLB.
To diagnose DLB more consistently, look for core features of the disease, RBD, antipsychotic hypersensitivity, and decreased striatal binding at presynaptic DaT sites.15 Abnormal (low binding) DaT activity is the most reliable diagnostic marker for DLB.34 Myocardial scintigraphy with MIBG is sensitive to pathologic changes of DLB before clinical expression and could overcome the difficulties of using clinical criteria alone to identify patients with DLB.35 MIBG scintigraphy may be preferred to DaT scan because it is less expensive and its sensitivity and specificity to DLB are independent of the presence of parkinsonism.35
For an overview of pharmacotherapy options for patients with AD or DLB, see Box 2.
Pharmacotherapy options for patients with Alzheimer’s disease (AD) or dementia with Lewy bodies (DLB) include cholinesterase inhibitors, memantine, antipsychotics, and other agents.
Cholinesterase inhibitors. Donepezil, rivastigmine, and galantamine are FDA-approved for treating AD. Their efficacy appears to be similar, so the choice of agent is based largely on cost, patient tolerability, and physician experience.
No medications are FDA-approved for treating DLB. Neocortical cholinergic activity assessed by choline acetyltransferase levels is more severely depleted in DLB than in AD, and this deficit is correlated with the presence of visual hallucinations and global severity of cognitive impairment.a Therefore, drugs that enhance central cholinergic function offer a therapeutic approach for DLB; cognitive and hallucinatory symptoms are the anticipated targets. Multiple anecdotal reports, open-label studies,b,c and 1 randomized, placebo-controlled triald suggest that cholinesterase inhibitors are efficacious in DLB, with reported benefits in cognition, fluctuations, psychotic symptoms, and parkinsonian symptoms. A 20-week randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled multicenter studyd of patients with DLB found rivastigmine, 6 to 12 mg/d, was superior to placebo. Patients receiving rivastigmine exhibited significantly reduced anxiety, delusions, and hallucinations and significantly better performance on a computerized battery of neuropsychological tests, especially tasks that required sustained attention. Differences between rivastigmine and placebo disappeared after drug discontinuation.
Memantine is a noncompetitive antagonist of N-methyl-d-aspartate receptors that is effective in AD.e The possible involvement of glutamate in DLB has provided a rationale for treating DLB with memantine. Two randomized controlled trials in DLB found that patients treated with memantine for 24 weeks performed better on Clinical Global Impression of Change, but not on most other secondary outcome measures.f,g In both studies, memantine was well tolerated. However, other studies have noted worsening of delusions and hallucinations with memantine in DLB patients.h
Antipsychotics. Agitation is common in moderate and advanced AD. Atypical antipsychotics have been used with variable efficacy to treat agitation, but their use is associated with excess mortality. DLB patients pose a considerable therapeutic challenge because antipsychotics—the mainstay of treatment of psychosis and behavioral problems in most other disorders—can provoke severe, irreversible, and often fatal sensitivity reactions in this type of dementia.i A 2- to 3-fold increased mortality risk associated with antipsychotic sensitivity reactions in DLB is partly mediated via acute blockade of postsynaptic dopamine D2 receptors in the striatum. For severe and disabling psychosis, a trial of a cholinesterase inhibitor and/or lowering the dose of antiparkinsonian medication should be considered first. In urgent situations, small doses of an atypical antipsychotic that is least associated with parkinsonism side effects—such as quetiapine or aripiprazole—should be used.
Other treatments. Treatment of parkinsonian symptoms in DLB patients is similar to that for Parkinson’s disease, but the risk of psychotic symptoms in DLB warrants a conservative approach. Levodopa seems to be more effective than dopamine agonists and produces fewer side effects.j Rapid eye movement sleep behavior disorder often responds to low doses of clonazepam (0.25 to 1.5 mg). Depression and anxiety disorders are common in AD at all stages and their treatment is not fundamentally different than in geriatric patients without dementia. Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors and electroconvulsive therapy have been used successfully in depressed patients with AD or DLB.k,l
Disease-modifying treatments. Researchers are evaluating an array of antiamyloid and neuroprotective therapeutic approaches for AD based on the hypothesis that amyloid-beta protein plays a pivotal role in disease onset and progression. Interventions that reduce amyloid production, limit aggregation, or increase clearance may block the cascade of events comprising AD pathogenesis. Reducing tau hyperphosphorylation, limiting oxidation and excitotoxicity, and controlling inflammation also may be beneficial strategies. Potentially neuroprotective and restorative treatments such as neurotrophins, neurotrophic factor enhancers, and stem cell-related approaches also are being investigated.
There are no large-scale studies of disease-modifying treatments for DLB. Potential areas of research include the relationship between proteasome function and a-synuclein pathology, the role of beta-synuclein, and the impact of alterations to alpha-synuclein on its propensity to aggregate.
References
a. Ballard C, Ziabreva I, Perry R, et al. Differences in neuropathologic characteristics across the Lewy body dementia spectrum. Neurology. 2006;67(11):1931-1934.
b. Beversdorf DQ, Warner JL, Davis RA, et al. Donepezil in the treatment of dementia with lewy bodies. Am J Geriatr Psychiatry. 2004;12(5):542-544.
c. Edwards K, Royall D, Hershey L, et al. Efficacy and safety of galantamine in patients with dementia with Lewy bodies: a 24-week open-label study. Dement Geriatr Cogn Disord. 2007;23(6):401-405.
d. McKeith I, Del Ser T, Spano P, et al. Efficacy of rivastigmine in dementia with Lewy bodies: a randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled international study. Lancet. 2000;356(9247):2031-2036.
e. Tariot PN, Farlow MR, Grossberg GT, et al. Memantine treatment in patients with moderate to severe Alzheimer disease already receiving donepezil: a randomized controlled trial. JAMA. 2004;291(3):317-324.
f. Aarsland D, Ballard C, Walker Z, et al. Memantine in patients with Parkinson’s disease dementia or dementia with Lewy bodies: a double-blind, placebo-controlled, multicentre trial. Lancet Neurol. 2009;8(7):613-618.
g. Emre M, Tsolaki M, Bonuccelli U, et al. Memantine for patients with Parkinson’s disease dementia or dementia with Lewy bodies: a randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. Lancet Neurol. 2010;9(10):969-977.
h. Ridha BH, Josephs KA, Rossor MN. Delusions and hallucinations in dementia with Lewy bodies: worsening with memantine. Neurology. 2005;65(3):481-482.
i. McKeith I, Fairbairn A, Perry R, et al. Neuroleptic sensitivity in patients with senile dementia of Lewy body type. BMJ. 1992;305(6855):673-678.
j. Fernandez HH, Wu CK, Ott BR. Pharmacotherapy of dementia with Lewy bodies. Expert Opin Pharmacother. 2003;4(11):2027-2037.
k. Swartz M, Barak Y, Mirecki I, et al. Treating depression in Alzheimer’s disease: integration of differing guidelines. Int Psychogeriatr. 2000;12(3):353-358.
l. Takahashi S, Mizukami K, Yasuno F, et al. Depression associated with dementia with Lewy bodies (DLB) and the effect of somatotherapy. Psychogeriatrics. 2009;9(2):56-61.
Related Resources
- Hanyu H, Sato T, Hirao K, et al. Differences in clinical course between dementia with Lewy bodies and Alzheimer’s disease. Eur J Neurol. 2009;16(2):212-217.
- Walker Z, McKeith I, Rodda J, et al. Comparison of cognitive decline between dementia with Lewy bodies and Alzheimer’s disease: a cohort study. BMJ Open. 2012;2:e000380.
Drug Brand Names
- Aripiprazole • Abilify
- Clonazepam • Klonopin
- Donepezil • Aricept
- Galantamine • Razadyne, Reminyl
- Levodopa • Dopar, Larodopa
- Memantine • Namenda
- Quetiapine • Seroquel
- Rivastigmine • Exelon
Disclosure
Drs. Bishnoi and Manepalli report no financial relationship with any company whose products are mentioned in this article or with manufacturers of competing products.
Dr. Grossberg serves as a consultant to Forest, Janssen, Novartis, and Pfizer. His department receives research funding from Novartis, Janssen, and Pfizer.
1. McKeith IG, Galasko D, Kosaka K, et al. Consensus guidelines for the clinical and pathologic diagnosis of dementia with Lewy bodies (DLB): report of the consortium on DLB international workshop. Neurology. 1996;47(5):1113-1124.
2. Buracchio T, Arvanitakis Z, Gorbien M. Dementia with Lewy bodies: current concepts. Dement Geriatr Cogn Disord. 2005;20(5):306-320.
3. Fujishiro H, Iseki E, Higashi S, et al. Distribution of cerebral amyloid deposition and its relevance to clinical phenotype in Lewy body dementia. Neurosci Lett. 2010;486(1):19-23.
4. Kosaka K. Diffuse Lewy body disease. Neuropathology. 2000;20(suppl):S73-S78.
5. McKeith IG, Dickson DW, Lowe J, et al. Consortium on DLB. Diagnosis and management of dementia with Lewy bodies: third report of the DLB Consortium. Neurology. 2005;65(12):1863-1872.
6. Cummings JL, Cole G. Alzheimer disease. JAMA. 2002;287(18):2335-2338.
7. Zaccai J, McCracken C, Brayne C. A systematic review of prevalence and incidence studies of dementia with Lewy bodies. Age Ageing. 2005;34(6):561-566.
8. Bradshaw J, Saling M, Hopwood M, et al. Fluctuating cognition in dementia with Lewy bodies and Alzheimer’s disease is qualitatively distinct. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 2004;75(3):382-387.
9. Singleton AB, Wharton A, O’Brien KK, et al. Clinical and neuropathological correlates of apolipoprotein E genotype in dementia with Lewy bodies. Dement Geriatr Cogn Disord. 2002;14(4):167-175.
10. McKhann GM, Knopman DS, Chertkow H, et al. The diagnosis of dementia due to Alzheimer’s disease: recommendations from the National Institute on Aging-Alzheimer’s Association workgroups on diagnostic guidelines for Alzheimer’s disease. Alzheimers Dement. 2011;7(3):263-269.
11. Jack CR, Jr, Albert MS, Knopman DS, et al. Introduction to the recommendations from the National Institute on Aging-Alzheimer’s Association workgroups on diagnostic guidelines for Alzheimer’s disease. Alzheimers Dement. 2011;7(3):257-262.
12. Mollenhauer B, Cullen V, Kahn I, et al. Direct quantification of CSF alpha-synuclein by ELISA and first cross-sectional study in patients with neurodegeneration. Exp Neurol. 2008;213(2):315-325.
13. Parnetti L, Balducci C, Pierguidi L, et al. Cerebrospinal fluid beta-glucocerebrosidase activity is reduced in dementia with Lewy bodies. Neurobiol Dis. 2009;34(3):484-486.
14. Shimada H, Hirano S, Shinotoh H, et al. Mapping of brain acetylcholinesterase alterations in Lewy body disease by PET. Neurology. 2009;73(4):273-278.
15. McKeith I, O’Brien J, Walker Z, et al. Sensitivity and specificity of dopamine transporter imaging with 123I-FP-CIT SPECT in dementia with Lewy bodies: a phase III, multicentre study. Lancet Neurol. 2007;6(4):305-313.
16. Walker Z, Jaros E, Walker RW, et al. Dementia with Lewy bodies: a comparison of clinical diagnosis, FP-CIT single photon emission computed tomography imaging and autopsy. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 2007;78(11):1176-1181.
17. Bradshaw JM, Saling M, Anderson V, et al. Higher cortical deficits influence attentional processing in dementia with Lewy bodies, relative to patients with dementia of the Alzheimer’s type and controls. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 2006;77(10):1129-1135.
18. Weiner MF, Hynan LS, Parikh B, et al. Can Alzheimer’s disease and dementias with Lewy bodies be distinguished clinically? J Geriatr Psychiatry Neurol. 2003;16(4):245-250.
19. Stavitsky K, Brickman AM, Scarmeas N, et al. The progression of cognition, psychiatric symptoms, and functional abilities in dementia with Lewy bodies and Alzheimer disease. Arch Neurol. 2006;63(10):1450-1456.
20. Ferman TJ, Smith GE, Boeve BF, et al. Neuropsychological differentiation of dementia with Lewy bodies from normal aging and Alzheimer’s disease. Clin Neuropsychol. 2006;20(4):623-636.
21. McKeith IG, Perry EK, Perry RH. Report of the second dementia with Lewy body international workshop: diagnosis and treatment. Consortium on Dementia with Lewy Bodies. Neurology. 1999;53(5):902-905.
22. Boeve BF, Silber MH, Ferman TJ, et al. Association of REM sleep behavior disorder and neurodegenerative disease may reflect an underlying synucleinopathy. Mov Disord. 2001;16(4):622-630.
23. Portet F, Scarmeas N, Cosentino S, et al. Extrapyramidal signs before and after diagnosis of incident Alzheimer disease in a prospective population study. Arch Neurol. 2009;66(9):1120-1126.
24. McKeith I, Fairbairn A, Perry R, et al. Neuroleptic sensitivity in patients with senile dementia of Lewy body type. BMJ. 1992;305(6855):673-678.
25. Tarawneh R, Galvin JE. Distinguishing Lewy body dementias from Alzheimer’s disease. Expert Rev Neurother. 2007;7(11):1499-1516.
26. Ancoli-Israel S, Klauber MR, Gillin JC, et al. Sleep in non-institutionalized Alzheimer’s disease patients. Aging (Milano). 1994;6(6):451-458.
27. Ferman TJ, Smith GE, Boeve BF, et al. DLB fluctuations: specific features that reliably differentiate DLB from AD and normal aging. Neurology. 2004;62(2):181-187.
28. Salmon DP, Galasko D, Hansen LA, et al. Neuropsychological deficits associated with diffuse Lewy body disease. Brain Cogn. 1996;31(2):148-165.
29. Jack CR, Jr, Petersen RC, Xu Y, et al. Rates of hippocampal atrophy correlate with change in clinical status in aging and AD. Neurology. 2000;55(4):484-489.
30. Burton EJ, Barber R, Mukaetova-Ladinska EB, et al. Medial temporal lobe atrophy on MRI differentiates Alzheimer’s disease from dementia with Lewy bodies and vascular cognitive impairment: a prospective study with pathological verification of diagnosis. Brain. 2009;132(pt 1):195-203.
31. Ishii K, Soma T, Kono AK, et al. Comparison of regional brain volume and glucose metabolism between patients with mild dementia with lewy bodies and those with mild Alzheimer’s disease. J Nucl Med. 2007;48(5):704-711.
32. Klein JC, Eggers C, Kalbe E, et al. Neurotransmitter changes in dementia with Lewy bodies and Parkinson disease dementia in vivo. Neurology. 2010;74(11):885-892.
33. Fujishiro H, Nakamura S, Kitazawa M, et al. Early detection of dementia with Lewy bodies in patients with amnestic mild cognitive impairment using 123I-MIBG cardiac scintigraphy. J Neurol Sci. 2012;315(1-2):115-119.
34. O’Brien JT, McKeith IG, Walker Z, et al. Diagnostic accuracy of 123I-FP-CIT SPECT in possible dementia with Lewy bodies. Br J Psychiatry. 2009;194:34-39.
35. Yoshita M, Taki J, Yokoyama K, et al. Value of 123I-MIBG radioactivity in the differential diagnosis of DLB from AD. Neurology. 2006;66(12):1850-1854.
1. McKeith IG, Galasko D, Kosaka K, et al. Consensus guidelines for the clinical and pathologic diagnosis of dementia with Lewy bodies (DLB): report of the consortium on DLB international workshop. Neurology. 1996;47(5):1113-1124.
2. Buracchio T, Arvanitakis Z, Gorbien M. Dementia with Lewy bodies: current concepts. Dement Geriatr Cogn Disord. 2005;20(5):306-320.
3. Fujishiro H, Iseki E, Higashi S, et al. Distribution of cerebral amyloid deposition and its relevance to clinical phenotype in Lewy body dementia. Neurosci Lett. 2010;486(1):19-23.
4. Kosaka K. Diffuse Lewy body disease. Neuropathology. 2000;20(suppl):S73-S78.
5. McKeith IG, Dickson DW, Lowe J, et al. Consortium on DLB. Diagnosis and management of dementia with Lewy bodies: third report of the DLB Consortium. Neurology. 2005;65(12):1863-1872.
6. Cummings JL, Cole G. Alzheimer disease. JAMA. 2002;287(18):2335-2338.
7. Zaccai J, McCracken C, Brayne C. A systematic review of prevalence and incidence studies of dementia with Lewy bodies. Age Ageing. 2005;34(6):561-566.
8. Bradshaw J, Saling M, Hopwood M, et al. Fluctuating cognition in dementia with Lewy bodies and Alzheimer’s disease is qualitatively distinct. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 2004;75(3):382-387.
9. Singleton AB, Wharton A, O’Brien KK, et al. Clinical and neuropathological correlates of apolipoprotein E genotype in dementia with Lewy bodies. Dement Geriatr Cogn Disord. 2002;14(4):167-175.
10. McKhann GM, Knopman DS, Chertkow H, et al. The diagnosis of dementia due to Alzheimer’s disease: recommendations from the National Institute on Aging-Alzheimer’s Association workgroups on diagnostic guidelines for Alzheimer’s disease. Alzheimers Dement. 2011;7(3):263-269.
11. Jack CR, Jr, Albert MS, Knopman DS, et al. Introduction to the recommendations from the National Institute on Aging-Alzheimer’s Association workgroups on diagnostic guidelines for Alzheimer’s disease. Alzheimers Dement. 2011;7(3):257-262.
12. Mollenhauer B, Cullen V, Kahn I, et al. Direct quantification of CSF alpha-synuclein by ELISA and first cross-sectional study in patients with neurodegeneration. Exp Neurol. 2008;213(2):315-325.
13. Parnetti L, Balducci C, Pierguidi L, et al. Cerebrospinal fluid beta-glucocerebrosidase activity is reduced in dementia with Lewy bodies. Neurobiol Dis. 2009;34(3):484-486.
14. Shimada H, Hirano S, Shinotoh H, et al. Mapping of brain acetylcholinesterase alterations in Lewy body disease by PET. Neurology. 2009;73(4):273-278.
15. McKeith I, O’Brien J, Walker Z, et al. Sensitivity and specificity of dopamine transporter imaging with 123I-FP-CIT SPECT in dementia with Lewy bodies: a phase III, multicentre study. Lancet Neurol. 2007;6(4):305-313.
16. Walker Z, Jaros E, Walker RW, et al. Dementia with Lewy bodies: a comparison of clinical diagnosis, FP-CIT single photon emission computed tomography imaging and autopsy. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 2007;78(11):1176-1181.
17. Bradshaw JM, Saling M, Anderson V, et al. Higher cortical deficits influence attentional processing in dementia with Lewy bodies, relative to patients with dementia of the Alzheimer’s type and controls. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 2006;77(10):1129-1135.
18. Weiner MF, Hynan LS, Parikh B, et al. Can Alzheimer’s disease and dementias with Lewy bodies be distinguished clinically? J Geriatr Psychiatry Neurol. 2003;16(4):245-250.
19. Stavitsky K, Brickman AM, Scarmeas N, et al. The progression of cognition, psychiatric symptoms, and functional abilities in dementia with Lewy bodies and Alzheimer disease. Arch Neurol. 2006;63(10):1450-1456.
20. Ferman TJ, Smith GE, Boeve BF, et al. Neuropsychological differentiation of dementia with Lewy bodies from normal aging and Alzheimer’s disease. Clin Neuropsychol. 2006;20(4):623-636.
21. McKeith IG, Perry EK, Perry RH. Report of the second dementia with Lewy body international workshop: diagnosis and treatment. Consortium on Dementia with Lewy Bodies. Neurology. 1999;53(5):902-905.
22. Boeve BF, Silber MH, Ferman TJ, et al. Association of REM sleep behavior disorder and neurodegenerative disease may reflect an underlying synucleinopathy. Mov Disord. 2001;16(4):622-630.
23. Portet F, Scarmeas N, Cosentino S, et al. Extrapyramidal signs before and after diagnosis of incident Alzheimer disease in a prospective population study. Arch Neurol. 2009;66(9):1120-1126.
24. McKeith I, Fairbairn A, Perry R, et al. Neuroleptic sensitivity in patients with senile dementia of Lewy body type. BMJ. 1992;305(6855):673-678.
25. Tarawneh R, Galvin JE. Distinguishing Lewy body dementias from Alzheimer’s disease. Expert Rev Neurother. 2007;7(11):1499-1516.
26. Ancoli-Israel S, Klauber MR, Gillin JC, et al. Sleep in non-institutionalized Alzheimer’s disease patients. Aging (Milano). 1994;6(6):451-458.
27. Ferman TJ, Smith GE, Boeve BF, et al. DLB fluctuations: specific features that reliably differentiate DLB from AD and normal aging. Neurology. 2004;62(2):181-187.
28. Salmon DP, Galasko D, Hansen LA, et al. Neuropsychological deficits associated with diffuse Lewy body disease. Brain Cogn. 1996;31(2):148-165.
29. Jack CR, Jr, Petersen RC, Xu Y, et al. Rates of hippocampal atrophy correlate with change in clinical status in aging and AD. Neurology. 2000;55(4):484-489.
30. Burton EJ, Barber R, Mukaetova-Ladinska EB, et al. Medial temporal lobe atrophy on MRI differentiates Alzheimer’s disease from dementia with Lewy bodies and vascular cognitive impairment: a prospective study with pathological verification of diagnosis. Brain. 2009;132(pt 1):195-203.
31. Ishii K, Soma T, Kono AK, et al. Comparison of regional brain volume and glucose metabolism between patients with mild dementia with lewy bodies and those with mild Alzheimer’s disease. J Nucl Med. 2007;48(5):704-711.
32. Klein JC, Eggers C, Kalbe E, et al. Neurotransmitter changes in dementia with Lewy bodies and Parkinson disease dementia in vivo. Neurology. 2010;74(11):885-892.
33. Fujishiro H, Nakamura S, Kitazawa M, et al. Early detection of dementia with Lewy bodies in patients with amnestic mild cognitive impairment using 123I-MIBG cardiac scintigraphy. J Neurol Sci. 2012;315(1-2):115-119.
34. O’Brien JT, McKeith IG, Walker Z, et al. Diagnostic accuracy of 123I-FP-CIT SPECT in possible dementia with Lewy bodies. Br J Psychiatry. 2009;194:34-39.
35. Yoshita M, Taki J, Yokoyama K, et al. Value of 123I-MIBG radioactivity in the differential diagnosis of DLB from AD. Neurology. 2006;66(12):1850-1854.